LEARNER'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2004 by Masaya Oba

15-1 [V EPD {Passive}:PASS]
The fourth and last group of V EPDs is called a V EPD {Passive}(PASS) or "be-en". This type of EPD adds the meaning of {Passive} to a verb.

      (1)  A novel was written by the computer.

     The verb phrase "was written" in (1) originally comes from the verb "write a novel", which was expanded by two EPDs: PST meaning {Past} and PASS meaning {Passive}.

15-2  [Diagram]
     Sentence (1) is formed in the following manner.

    (2)  A novel + PST + be-en + write a novel + by the computer
                                     
    (3)  A novel     was     written      ø    + by the computer. (=1)

Notice that in (3) the second "a novel" is deleted by Equi Rule #3(cf.11-1) to make a gap(ø).
Diagram:

      (4)      (was written øj
                       V
                        
              EPD[AGR]       V
              (PST)           
                     EPD[PASS]     V
                      (be-en)   (write a novel)

15-3 [Gap(ø)]
Previous V EPDs like "can", "have-en", and "be-ing" make an ANA form of the repeated noun, while the V EPD {Passive}, "be-en", always makes a gap(ø) of it. In other words, the former triggers Equi Rule #2, while the latter triggers Equi Rule #3. Compare (5)with (6).

      (5)a. John will write an essay about himself/*ø. [Equi #2]
         b. John has written an essay about himself/*ø.
         c. John is writing an essay about himself/*ø.
      (6)  An essay was written ø/*itself.             [Equi #3]

The gap(ø) in "was written ø" made by "be-en" is similar to the following ones in that it is syntactic and obligatory.

      (7)  This is the book which I bought [ø/*the book] yesterday.  cf.27-2
      (8)  The refugees have no house to live in [ø/*the house].     cf.24-1

Compare these with the following optional gap in (9).

      (9)  My car isn't working. I'll have to use Mary's [ø/car]. (Swan,p.173)

15-4 [PASS + VZ+N+A(D)/VZ+N1+N2]
The V EPD {Passive}, "be-en", can go with not only the verb pattern "VZ+N" but also the verb patterns "VZ+N+A(D)" and "VZ+N1+N2."

    (i) <VZ+N+ A(D)>
      (10)  make a lot of people homeless  
                 A lot of people were made ø homeless.
      (11)  leave the last problem unsettled  
                 The last problem was left ø unsettled.

   (ii) <VZ+N1+N2>
      (12)  give him a Nobel Prize  
                 He was given ø a Nobel Prize.
      (13)  call him a jerk  
                 He was called ø a jerk then.

In the case of "VZ+N1+N2", the output sentence where N1 is deleted is more common than that where N2 is deleted.

      (14)  give him a Nobel Prize  
              a.  He was given ø a Nobel Prize.
              b. ?A Nobel Prize was given him ø.
      (15)  cook us some fish  
              a.  We were cooked ø some fish.
              b. *Some fish was cooked us ø.
      (16)  do me a favor 
              a.  I was done ø a favor.
              b. *A favor was done me ø.

Diagrams of (10) and (12):

      (17)  (were made ø homeless)
                    V
                     
            EPD[AGR]      V
             (PST)         
                  EPD[PASS]     V
                   (be-en)   (make a lot of people homeless)

      (18)  (was given ø a Nobel Prize)
                    V
                     
            EPD[AGR]      V
             (PST)         
                  EPD[PASS]     V
                   (be-en)   (give him a Nobel Prize)

15-5 [Unapplicable PASS]
Not all verbs can go with "be-en". Verbs which go with it have the following constraints. They have to

      (i) have a noun(N) in themselves, which means they have either
          of the patterns "VZ+N", "VZ+N+N", and "VZ+N+A(D)".
     (ii) have a noun(N) expressing the receiver of the action.

Verbs which occur with "be-en" always have a noun(N) in themselves, but not all verbs which have a noun(N) in themselves can occur with "be-en".

      (19)  kick a ball  
                 A ball was kicked ø.
      (20)  have a ball  
               * A ball was had ø.

In (19) "a ball" is the receiver of the action "kick", while "a ball" in (20) is not the receiver of "have".

        <Verbs which usually can't go with "be-en"> (Collins,p.407)

      (21)  escape N, get N, have N, like N, resemble N,
            survive N, etc.

15-6 [Two Motivations of the Passive Usage]
Many verbs with a noun in themselves can occur with "be-en". But not all of them can. For a verb to have a passive usage, the noun in it must be the receiver of the action. Moreover, not all the verbs with the receiver noun always go with "be-en", which is the optional expander. The passivization which introduces the optional "be-en" seems to be triggered by the two apparently inconsistent motivations.

    (i) To hide the agent.
      (22)  America was discovered ø in 1492.
   (ii) To emphasize the agent.
      (23)  America was discovered ø in 1492 by Columbus.

The first motivation generates the passive sentence without "by + Nhas in (22), while the second motivation does that with it. Most linguists agree that the former is much more common than the latter.
Some linguists may add the third motivation which is stylistic.

  (iii) To fix the syntactic style.
      (24)  The Pope arrived in Madrid this morning and was
             immediately besieged ø by reporters.

15-7 [Action/State by PASS]
Since "be" can express both state and action, the pattern "be+Ven" may sometimes mean state and some other times mean action.

      (25)  The chair was broken ø.  (State/Action)  (Quirk, p.162)

To show clearly that it is not a state but an action, not "be+Ven" but "get+Ven" is used.

      (26)  The chair got broken ø.   (Action)

15-8 ["in" + Target, "at" + Cause, etc]
When the noun after "by" is not an agent but a target, a cause, etc., "in", "at", etc. are used.

      (27)  My brother is interested ø in history.
      (28)  We were all surprised ø at the news.
      (29)  Mt.Fuji is covered ø with snow.
      (30)  The boy is known ø to everybody in town.
      (31)  Tommy's piggybank is made ø of plastic.
      (32)  I'm fed ø up with these stupid students.

15-9 [V{CVT VZ?] (cf. 25-3, Reanalysis)
The underlined part in (33) is structurally ambigouous.

      (33)  Uncle John laughed at me.

The diagram of (33) can be shown in two ways: (34) and (35).

      (34)  (laugh at me)           (35) (laugh at me)
                   V                            V
                                           
             V         AD               VZ           N
          (laugh)                (laugh at)    (me)
                CVT[N-AD]    N
                  (at)      (me)

In this book, however, we claim that the proper diagram is (35), not (34), because a passive sentence can be formed as in (36).

      (36)  I was laughed at ø by Uncle John.

An apparently similar, but actually different, case.

      (37)a.  We all agreed with Bill.
          b. *Bill was agreed with ø by us all.

In the above (37), "Bill" is not the real receiver of the action "agree with."

          <Verb Phrases which usually can't go with "be-en">
      (38)  band together N,  brush up N,  fail in N,
            have on N,  live on N,  stand off N, etc.

15-10 [PASS + VZ + N + to + V]
Verbs with the structure "VZ+N+to+V" are of two types. One can go with "be-en", while the other can't.

    (i) "VZ + N + to + V" that can go with "be-en"
      (39)  expect you to go alone  
                You are expected ø to go alone.
      (40)  force them to leave the room  
                They were forced ø to leave the room.
   (ii) "VZ + N + to + V" that can not go with "be-en"
      (41)  want the candidate to make a brief speech  
               *The candidate was wanted ø to make a brief speech.
      (42)  wish me to join their team  
               *I was wished ø to join their team.