Chapter  V   VERB   CONVERSION

Lesson  22   Verb-Noun Convertor(V-N CVT)："to", "-ing", etc.

 22-1  [Verb-Noun Convertor(V-N CVT)："to"] 
     A verb(V) with "to" added can function as a noun(N).
      (1)a.　To watch wild birds is my hobby.
         b.　Art is my hobby.
     The underlined part in (1a), "to watch wild birds", is grammatically interchangeable with the noun(N) "art" in (1b).  Since "watch wild birds" is a verb(V) and "to watch wild birds" is a noun(N), it can be said that a verb(V) can be converted into a noun(N) by the convertor "to".  In other words,
      (2) to + V    N
     In this book we call this kind of convertor a verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT), "to".  The diagram of the underlined part in (1a):
      (3)    (to watch wild birds)
                   N
                  
          CVT[V-N]     V
            (to)     (watch wild birds)
     The newly born noun(N), which, to be more precise, is a noun phrase, usually can occur where nouns occur.
      (4)  Dogs like to bury bones.
      (5)  The most important thing is not to win, but to take part.
      (6)  Our plan is to get there early and have lunch.
      (7)  To know is one thing, to teach another.
      (8)  We had no choice but to give up the plan.
 22-2  [Dummy "it"] 
     When a noun phrase, "to V", is rather long, the following style with "it" as a substitute is preferred as in (9b).
      (9)a.  To talk frankly is not always good.    (opt.)
         b.  It is not always good to talk frankly.
     Other examples:
      (10)  It's expensive to live in a big city.
      (11)  It's our custom to get together once a year.
      (12)  It took me a long time to solve this problem.
     Sometimes the use of dummy "it" is obligatory.
      (13)a. I thought it better to talk frankly.  (obl.)
          b. *I thought to talk frankly better.
 22-3  ["to" + Complex Expanded Verb N:to have Ven, not to V,
           etc.] 
     A complex expanded verb may also be converted into a noun(N) by the convertor "to".
      (14)  The poor hate to be pitied by the rich.
      (15)  I want to be sitting in the woods, listening to
            a nightingale.
      (16)  It's a mistake to have left a little child alone.
      (17)  They told us not to be late.
     The diagram of the underlined part in (14) is:
      (18)    (to be pitied ø)
                     N
                    
            CVT[V-N]     V
              (to)      
                 EPD[PASS]   V
                  (be-en)  (pity the poor)
     The diagram for the underlined part in (17):
       (19)    (not to be late)
                     N
                    
            CVT[V-N]     V
              (to)      
                 EPD[NEG]    V
                  (not)   (be late)
     Remember that not all combinations of V EPDs can be converted by the convertor "to" and thereby function as a noun(N).  For example, the convertor "to" can not be used with verb phrases including a MOD.
      (20)a.  *to will go
          b.  *to may come
 22-4  [Verb-Noun Convertor(V-N CVT): "how to", etc.] 
     Sometimes a verb(V) can be converted into a noun(N) by the convertor "to" with a wh-word.
       (21)  The problem was how to make a fire.
     The underlined part in (21) is derived from a verb "make a fire somehow" by the verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT) "how to" as in (22).
      (22)  how to +  [make a fire somehow]
                         Step 1: Substitute the wh-word to some-word.
                to +  [make a fire how]
                         Step 2: Move the wh-word to the front. 
                                 (ø comes out)
                      [how to make a fire ø]
     Diagram:
      (23)    (how to make a fire ø)
                     N
                    
            CVT[V-N]     V
            (how to)  (make a fire somehow)
     Other examples:
      (24)  I didn't know what to do next.
      (25)  I didn't know when to stop it.
      (26)  I didn't know where to go first.
      (27)  I didn't know which to take.
 22-5  [for＋N A] 
     When you want to add the meaning of {Agent} or {Theme} to a noun(N) "to V", you can use the form "for N", which is an adjective(A) derived from a noun(N).    cf. 22-11(N'sA)
      (28)  It is very hard for a high school dropout to get a job.
     Diagram:
      (29)  (for a high school dropout to get a job)
                          N
                           
                   A              N
                             
            CVT[N-A]    N  CVT[V-N]    V
           (for) (a h.s.d.) (to)  (get a job)
     Some other examples.
      (30)  For the working class to own a car was something
            unbelievable before the war.
      (31)  What I want is for you to go there yourself.
      (32)  It is impossible for there to be any animal 
            on the moon.       cf.23-9
     In the following example Equi Rule #3 works to delete the form "for N".
      (33)a. *I like for me to sing in the bathtub.
          b.  I like to sing in the bathtub.
     Notice that the person to "like" in (33) and the person to "sing in the bathtub" are the same person.  In (33a) Equi Rule #3 has not been applied, while in (33b) it has. "Me" in (33a) is first deleted by Equi Rule #3 and then the convertor "for", which has nothing to convert, disappears.
     Other examples:
      (34)a. *I told him for him to come back soon.
          b.  I told him to come back soon.
      (35)a. *I promised him for me to come back soon.
          b.  I promised him to come back soon.
 22-6  [VZ + ø + N + toV] 
     After certain verbalizers(VZs) such as "want" and "expect", "for" always disappears.
　　　(36)  I want you to come back soon.
     From another point of view, 'without "for"' means 'with an OM-NI convertor "ø" (cf.8-6) added'.
     Diagram:
      (37)  (want ø you to come back soon) 
                      V
                       
               VZ           N
             (want)          
                     A              N
                               
             CVT[OM-NI]   N  CVT[V-N]    V
               (ø)     (you)  (to)   (come back soon)
     Other examples:
      (38)  I forced him to go there.
      (39)  I believed him to be innocent.
      (40)  I don't want you to be laughed at by anyone.
      (41)  I'd advise you not to invite her.
 22-7  [VZ + ø + N + ø + V] 
     After certain verbalizers(VZs) such as "make", "let", "see", "hear" and "feel", both "for" and "to" are always omitted.
      (42)a. *I made for him to go.
          b. *I made him to go.
          c.  I made him go.
     Diagram of the verb phrase in (42c):
      (43)  (made ø him ø go)
                     V
                      
              VZ           N
            (made)          
                    A              N
                              
            CVT[OM-NI]   N CVT[OM-NI]   V
               (ø)   (him)    (ø)      (go)
     Other examples:
      (44)  Please let me do that.
      (45)  I saw him walk across the road.
      (46)  We heard something fall onto the floor with a thud.
      (47)  I felt something cold touch me on the shoulder.
      (48)  We were all listening to the teacher read the textbook.
     We can explain why "for N" in 22-5 is deleted by refering to Equi Rule #3 which avoids unnecessary repetition.  However, it is puzzling why "for" in 22-6 and "for-to" in 22-7 are deleted; it seems inexplicable.

 22-8  [Verb-Noun Convertor(V-N CVT): "-ing"] 
     Like the convertor "to", "-ing" can be attached to a verb(V) to make a noun(N) as in (49a).
      (49)a.  I like watching wild birds.
          b.  I like wild birds.
     The rule is:
      (50)    V + -ing   N
     We call this convertor a verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT), "-ing".  The diagram of the underlined part in (49a) is:
      (51)    (watching wild birds)
                       N
                      
              CVT[V-N]     V
               (-ing)    (watch wild birds)
     Other examples.
      (52)  They enjoyed playing tag.
      (53)  Shaking hands is an old custom.
      (54)  I'm looking forward to seeing you again.
      (55)  How about taking a coffee break for a while.
      (56)  On leaving school, he went into business.
 22-9  [Ambiguous Ving(i)]      cf.24-5
     Compare the two underlined parts in the following.
      (57)a.  My hobby is collecting stamps.
          b.  My brother is collecting stamps.
The former comes from the verb "collect stamps" plus a V-N CVT "-ing", while the latter comes from the same verb "collect stamps" plus a V EPD{Progressive} "be-ing".
     Compare the two diagrams:
      (58)  (collecting stamps)
                     N
                    
              CVT[V-N]   V
               (-ing)  (collect stamps)

      (59)  ((is) collecting stamps)
                     V
                    
             EPD[PROG]   V
             (be-ing)  (collect stamps)
 22-10  ["-ing"＋Complex Expanded Verb N:being Ven, having
              Ven, etc.] 
     A complex expanded verb may also be converted into a noun(N) by the convertor "-ing".
      (60)  I knew for the first time the happiness of loving and
            being loved.
      (61)  Not dressing warmly in winter can result in catching a
            bad cold.
      (62)  Jane's ashamed of having broken her promise again.
      (63)  I can't stand being laughed at.
      (64)  He regretted not having been a good son.
      (65)  He is very proud of having been educated in England.
     Diagram of the underlined part in (60):
      (66)    (being loved ø )
                     N
                    
            CVT[V-N]     V
             (-ing)     
                  EPD[PASS]  V
                   (be-en)  (love me)
 22-11  [N+'s A] 
     When you want to add the meaning of {Agent} or {Theme} to a noun "Ving", you can use the form "N's", which is an adjective(A) derived from a noun(N).       cf. 22-5(for＋NA)
      (67)  I'm proud of my son's attending a good school.
     Diagram of the underlined part in (67):
      (68)    (my son's attending a good school)
                        N
                         
                 A              N
                           
          CVT[N-A]    N   CVT[V-N]   V
          (-'s) (my son)  (-ing)  (attend a good school)
     In the following two examples, (69a) with an overlapping "my" is ungrammatical, while the latter (69b), without it, is grammatical.
　　　(69)a.  *I'm proud of my attending a good school.
　　　　　b.   I'm proud of ø attending a good school.
     The diagram of the relevant part in (69b) is:
      (70)    ( ø attending a good school)
                        N
                         
                 A              N
                           
          CVT[N-A]    N    CVT[V-N]   V
         (-'sø) (Iø)  (-ing)  (attend a good school)
Application of Equi Rule #3 results first in the deletion of "I " and then
of "-'s".

 22-12  [N's Ving    vs    N Ving] 
     Compare the two underlined parts in the following.
      (71)a.  I don't mind John's smoking in my room.
          b.  I don't mind John smoking in my room.
     The diagram of the underlined part in (71a) is easy to draw:
      (72)    (John's smoking in my room)
                        N
                         
                 A              N
                           
          CVT[N-A]    N   CVT[V-N]   V
           (-'s)  (John)  (-ing)  (smoke in my room)
     However, it seems that the relevant part in (71b) has two structures and therefore two meanings.  One possible structure:
      (73)a.  (John smoking in my room)
                        N
                         
                 A              N
                           
         CVT[OM-NI]   N  CVT[V-N]    V
            (ø)    (John) (-ing)  (smoke in my room)
     Another possibility:
      (73)b.  (John smoking in my room)
                        N
                        
                  N          A
                (John)       
                      CVT[V-A]    V
                       (-ing)   (smoke in my room)
     In (73a) "John" is an adjective(A) made up of OM-NI CVT "ø" and noun(N) "John", while "John" in (73b) is a noun(N) followed by an adjective phrase "smoking in my room". (cf. V-A CVT "-ing" at 24-4)  In other words, what "I" don't mind in (71a) is the action of "smoking in my room", while in (71b) it is the person "John".

 22-13  [to + V N    vs    V + -ing N] 
     Both "to V" and "Ving" can be a noun(N).  However, some verbalizers(VZs) precede only "to V" and others only "Ving", although many precede both.
    (i)  Verbalizers(VZs) followed only by "to V"
      (74)a.  He tends to boast.
          b. *He tends boasting.
      (75)a.  She wished to go to college.
          b. *She wished going to college.
      (76)a.  The president expects to attend the meeting.
          b. *The president expects attending the meeting.

   (ii) Verbalizers(VZs) followed only by "Ving"
      (77)a.  I enjoyed skiing.
          b. *I enjoyed to ski.
      (78)a.  Looks like she avoids seeing me.
          b. *Looks like she avoids to see me.
      (79)a.  We all finished reading the book.
          b. *We all finished to read the book.

  (iii)  Verbalizers(VZs) followed both by "to V" and by "Ving"
      (80)a.  I intend to quit my job.
          b.  I intend quitting my job.
      (81)a.  Dad likes to sleep late on Sundays.
          b.  Dad likes sleeping late on Sundays.
      (82)a.  I don't bother to do such a thing.
          b.  I don't bother doing such a thing.
     Some linguists claim that in (iii) "to V" usually has a meaning {Future} or {Incomplete} while "Ving" has that of {Present/Past} or {Complete}.
      (83)a.  I forgot to lock at the door.
          b.  I forgot locking at the door.
      (84)a.  He tried to write to her, but he couldn't.
          b.  He tried writing to her, but she did not reply.
     There are, however, examples which do not support this analysis.
Copyright(C) 2004 Masaya Oba. All rights reserved.