Chapter  V   VERB   CONVERSION

Lesson  24   Verb-Adjective Convertor(V-A CVT):"to", "-ing"

 24-1  [Verb-Adjective Convertor(V-A CVT):"to"] 
     A verb(V), with "to" added, can often function as an adjective(A) as in the underlined part in (1a).
      (1)a.   John has a large family to look after him.
         b. = John has a large family who could look after him.
     In the underlined part in (1a), we observe the conversion of a verb "look after him" by the convertor "to".
     The formula is:
      (2)  to + V  A
     In this book, the convertor "to" which converts a verb(V) into an adjective(A) is called a verb-adjective convertor(V-A CVT), "to".
     The diagram of the underlined part in (1a):
      (3)  [a large family](to look after him)
                                A
                               
                         CVT[V-A]   V
                           (to)   (look after him(=John))
     Now look at (4a):
      (4)a.   John has a large family to look after.
         b. = John has a large family whom he should look after.
The underlined part in (4a) is the combination of "to" and "look after".  But "look after" is not complete in meaning, and many native speakers of English feel that something is missing after it.  In this book we claim that "look after" is just a verbalizer(VZ) and there exists a gap or ø after it triggered by Equi Rule #3 (cf. 11-1).
     Thus, the above sentence (4a) is strictly shown as in (5).
      (5)  John has a large family to look after ø.   (=4a)
     Diagram:
      (6)  [a large family](to look after ø)
                                A
                               
                         CVT[V-A]   V
                           (to)   (look after a large family)
     When and how does this ø occur?  For when, when a noun(N) in "to V" and the noun(N) preceding it are the same, ø occurs.  And for how, through application of Equi Rule #3, ø occurs.
     In (1a), the noun "him" in "to look after him" and the noun "a large family" preceding it are not the same, while in (4a) the two nouns("a large family" overt before "to" and "a large family" covert after "look after") are the same.  In other words, in (1a) there is no redundancy, while in (4a) there is.  This is just an example of Equi Rule #3.
     Neither a V-N CVT "to" nor a V-AD CVT "to" can make a ø.  This function only belongs to a V-A CVT "to".
     Other examples:
   (i) to V  A (without ø)
      (7)  Three cheeseburgers to go, please.
      (8)  He has no friends to advise him.
      (9)  He is the last person to do such a thing.

  (ii) to V  A (with ø)
     (10)  I have a lot of work to do ø today.
     (11)  We had no time to lose ø.
     (12)  These refugees have no house to live in ø.
     (13)  He is a hard person to do business with ø.
 24-2  ["to"+Complex Expanded Verb A:to be Ving, to have
            Ven, etc] 
     A complex expanded verb may be converted into an adjective(A) by the convertor "to".
      (14)  The patient seems to be getting better.
      (15)  We seem to have gotten off the point.
     The diagram of the underlined part in (14):
      (16)   (to be getting better)
                    A
                   
            CVT[V-A]    V
             (to)       
                 EPD[PROG]   V
                  (be-ing) (get better)
 24-3  [for + N AD] 
     When you want to add the meaning of {Agent} or {Theme} to an adjective(A) "to V",you can use the form of "for N". (cf. 22-5, 23-4)
    (17)  The library has a lot of books for the children to read ø.
    (18)  His politeness is a good example for others to follow ø.
     Meanwhile, the "for N" parts in (17) and (18) are not adjectives but adverbs.
     Diagram of the underlinded part in (17):
      (19)  [a lot of books] (for the children to read ø )
                                    A
                                     
                           AD               A
                                       
                   CVT[N-AD]     N  CVT[V-A]     V
                  (for) (the children) (to) (read a lot of books)
 24-4  [Verb-Adjective Convertor(V-A CVT):"-ing"] 
     Like the convertor "to", "-ing" can also be attached to a verb(V) to make an adjective(A) as in (20a).
    (20)a.   Mary smiled at the baby sleeping in the cradle.
        b. = Mary smiled at the baby who was sleeping in the cradle.
     In other words,
    (21)  V + -ing  A
     In this book, this type of "-ing" is called a verb-adjective convertor(V-A CVT), "-ing".  Diagram of the underlined part in (20a):
    (22)  (sleeping in the cradle)
                     A
                    
              CVT[V-A]   V
               (-ing)  (sleep in the cradle)
     Other examples:
    (23)  The man living next door seldom goes out.
    (24)  I'd like a room facing the lake, if possible.
    (25)  We received a letter from Jim saying he's sick in bed.
    (26)  He is, as it were, a walking dictionary.
 24-5  [Ambiguous Ving (ii)]        cf. 22-9
     Compare the following two.
      (27)a. a sleeping BABY (=a baby who is sleeping)
          b. a SLEEPING car (= a car for sleeping)
     Considering the intonation pattern, (27a) corresponds to (28a) while (27b) to (28b).
      (28)a. a brown CASE (= a case which is brown)
          b. a BOOK case  (= a case for books)
     In other words, "sleeping" in (27a) is an adjective(A) very close to a genuine adjective(A), while "SLEEPING" in (27b) is an adjective very close to a noun(N).
     Diagrams:
      (29)  (sleeping baby)
                   N
                   
             A          N
                 (baby)
       CVT[V-A]    V
        (-ing)   (sleep)

      (30)  (sleeping car)
                   N
                   
              A         N
                  (car)
      CVT[OM-NI]   N
        (ø)        
            CVT[V-N]    V
             (-ing)   (sleep)
 24-6  [(being) Ven: A] 
     Compare the following.
      (31)a.  We've got three days to go.
          b.  We've got three days remaining.
          c.  We've got three days left.
The above three have the same meaning.  In (31a) the verb "go" is converted by the V-A CVT "to", and in (31b) the verb "remain" is converted by the V-A CVT "-ing".  What about (31c)?
     The sure thing is, "left" in (31c) includes the meaning of {Passive} and the function of an adjective(A).  Thus the diagram:
      (32)    ((being) left ø)
                     A
                     
             CVT[V-A]     V
             (-ing)       
                   EPD[PASS]   V
                    (be-en)  (leave three days)
        (In an adjective phrase starting with "being", the front
         "being" is often omitted.)
     Other examples.
　　　(33)  He bought a boomerang made in France.
　　　(34)  I'll keep my fingers crossed for you.
　　　(35)  He had his decayed tooth pulled out.
　　　(36)  There were a lot of wounded soldiers in the hospital.
　　　(37)  We had to drive with the window closed.
 24-7  [to + V A    vs    V + -ing A] 
     Any verb(V) can be changed into an adjective(A) either by "to" or "-ing", but the new meaning varies slightly case by case.
      (38)a.  John has a large family looking after him.
             =John has a large family who are looking after him.
          b.  John has a large family to look after him.
             =(38a)
             =John has a large family who could look after him.
     As a result, "to V" is acceptable in some cases but not in other cases, while "Ving" is acceptable in some cases but not in others.
      (39)a.  John has a large family to look after ø.
          b. *John has a large family looking after ø.
      (40)a. *My hometown is a harbor to face the Pacific Ocean.
          b.  My hometown is a harbor facing the Pacific Ocean.
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