Chapter  I   SIX GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES


Lesson  7   Minor Morpheme -- Expander(EPD)

 7-1  [Kinds of Expanders(EPDs)] 
     In 2-7, we divided minor morphemes into two groups: expanders(EPDs) and convertors(CVTs).  EPDs are attached to major morphemes but DO NOT change the major morpheme's grammatical category.  In contrast, CVTs are attached to major morphemes and DO change the major morpheme's grammatical category.
     Theoretically we will have five types of EPDs. (cf.7-12,OMNI EPD)
     (i) noun expander(N EPD) to expand a noun(N)
    (ii) adjective expander(A EPD) to expand an adjective(A)
   (iii) verb expander(V EPD) to expand a verb(V)
    (iv) adverb expander(AD EPD) to expand an adverb(AD)
     (v) sentence expander(S EPD) to expand a sentence(S)
     Notice that all these are category-maintaining.  In other words,
     (1)  EPD + X  X
     Diagram:
     (2)     X
            
         EPD     X
 7-2  [N EPD(Affix) {Plural}: PL] 
     We first pick up N EPDs.  The most important is the EPD expressing {Plural} which, attached to a countable noun, makes the plural form.  We call this an N EPD {Plural}, PL.  Here are some examples:
     (3) a.  two dogs
         b.  two books
         c.  two dishes
The affixes "-s" and "-es" in the above attach the meaning of {Plural} to the singular form(dog/book/dish) to make the plural form.
     Diagrams:
      (4)      (dogs)
                N
                
          N      EPD[PL]
          (dog)      (-s)

      (5)      (books)
                 N
                 
            N      EPD[PL]
          (book)      (-s)

      (6)      (dishes)
                 N
                 
            N      EPD[PL]
          (dish)      (-es)
 7-3  [Regular Plural Forms: "-s" and " -es"] 
     Be careful about the pronunciation of "-s".  The "-s" after "dog" is pronounced /z/, while the same "-s" after "book" is pronounced /s/.  This means "-s" has one form in terms of letters but two forms in terms of pronunciation.
     English has another regular plural form "-es" which is always pronounced /iz/.  Thus, the regular plural form is expressed in two written forms("-s" and "-es") and in three spoken forms(/s/, /z/, /iz/).
     These three spoken forms are closely related to the last sound, not letter, of the nouns.  When a noun ends in voiced sounds such as /g/, /r/, etc, the plural morpheme is "-s" pronounced /z/.  When a noun ends in unvoiced sounds such as /k/,/t/, etc, the plural morpheme is "-s" pronounced /s/.  In the third case, when a noun ends in //,//, etc, the plural morpheme is "-es" pronounced /iz/.  Look at the following examples.
      <Regular Plural Forms>
     (i) Written "-s", Pronounced /-z/
            (after vowels, and all voiced consonants except /z/,
             //, and//)     (Swan, p.525)
       (7) songs, beds, days, dreams, hills, trees, visas,
           1960's(1960s), MC's(MCs), A's(As), etc.
    (ii) Written "-s", Pronounced /-s/
            (after any other unvoiced consonants /p/,/f/,//, etc.)
       (8) books,  hats, close-ups, beliefs, deaths, etc.
  (iii) Written "-es", Pronounced /-iz/
            (after sibilant sounds/s/,/z/,//,//, etc.)
       (9) dishes,  churches,  buses,  boxes,  bridges,
           quizzes,  lenses,  houses/-ziz/,  etc.
 7-4  [Irregular Plural Forms: "-ren", etc.] 
     Some nouns have their own distinctive plural forms no matter what the last sound of their singular form is.
     (10)a.  two children (one child)
         b.  two geese   (one goose)
         c.  two sheep  (one sheep)
The attached "-ren" in (10a), the vowel change "ooee" in (10b), and the expander(EPD) "ø"(cf.9-4) in (10c) express {Plural}.
     Diagrams:
     (11)      (children)
                  N
                  
             N      EPD[PL]
           (child)    (-ren)

     (12)      (geese)
                  N
                  
             N      EPD[PL]
            (goose)   (oošee)

     (13)      (sheep)
                  N
                  
             N      EPD[PL]
            (sheep)    (ø)
     This means that English has regular plural forms ("-s" and "-es") and irregular forms("-ren","ooee","ø", etc).  Here are some more examples.
    <Irregular Plural Forms>
   (i) Some other affixes than "-(e)s"
      (14) ox/oxen, crisis/crises, phenomenon/phenomena,
           criterion/criteria, stimulus/stimuli, alumna/alumnae, etc.
  (ii) Vowel Change
      (15) foot/feet, tooth/teeth, woman/women, mouse/mice, etc.
 (iii) Zero Change (ø)
      (16) fish, deer, sheep, means, series, species,
           headquarters, crossroads, Japanese, etc.
     Now we can characterize the N EPD {Plural}, PL, as follows.
      <N EPD{Plural}: PL>
    (i)  Meaning: {Plural}
   (ii) (Written) Forms: "-s", "-es", "-ren", "ooee", "ø", etc.
  (iii) (Spoken) Forms: /s/, /z/, /iz/, /rn/, /u:i:/, /ø/, etc.
 7-5  [N EPD(Word) {Indefinite}: INDF] 
     One of the most frequent N EPDs is "a(n)" expressing {Indefinite}.  This is called an N EPD {Indefinite} or INDF.  It is always attached to a singular noun(N) to make a noun phrase in the pattern "a(n){N".
     Diagram:
     (17)      N
              
       EPD[INDF]   N
        (a(n))
     This EPD {Indefinite} also includes another meaning {One}.
     (18)  I'll finish the job in a day or two.
     (19)  I saw a bird under a car.
     Thus, to be precise, we should label this EPD {Indefinite and One}, but for convenience we label it simply {Indefinite}.

 7-6  ["a"  vs  "an"] 
     The {Indefinite} form, "a" or "an", depends on the pronunciation of the first sound of the following noun.  When the first sound, not letter, of the following noun is a vowel, it becomes "an", while it is "a" when the following sound is a consonant.
     (20) a.   an egg            /n + eg/
          b.  *a egg            */ + eg/
     (21) a.   an honest man     /n + nst + .../
          b.  *a honest man     */ + nst + .../
     (22) a.   a book            / + buk/
          b.  *an book          */n + buk/
 7-7  [a(n) + A + Nu] 
     Usually uncountable nouns can't be used with "a(n)".  The combination of the two meanings, {Uncountable} and {One}, is inconsistent.
     (23)      (* a rain)
                  *N
                  
          EPD[INDF]   Nu
            (a)      (rain)
     However, the pattern "a(n) + A + Nu" is quite common.  When an uncountable nouniNu) is modified by an adjective, it often has the clear-cut boundary in meaning and then is considered a countable nouni‚mc) in such a context.
     (24)      (a heavy rain)
                     N
                    
            EPD[INDF]     N
                (a)      
                      A      Nu
                   (heavy)  (rain)
     Similar examples:
     (25) a. *a wine
          b.  a delicious wine
     (26) a. *an education
          b.  a good education
     (27) a. *a knowledge
          b.  a first-class knowledge    (Swan, p.139)
 7-8  [N EPD(Word) {Definite}: DEF] 
     In contrast with {Indefinite} EPDs, English has another type of N EPD called an N EPD {Definite}, or DEF which always has the form "the".  The meaning of {Definite} is {I know that you know it} as in:
    (i) Previously mentioned
      (28)  I bought a house.  The house has seven rooms.
      (29)  I bought a house.  The kitchen is rather large.

   (ii) Understood in the context
     a) Visible
      (30)  Look at the door.
      (31)  Stand by the window over there.
     b) Generally expected to be present
      (32)  Where's the police station?
      (33)  Let's keep the earth green.
     c) With expanding(modifying) words/phrases/clauses
      (34)  I talked with the one/only/last student who needed 
            help.
      (35)  She is the best singer I know.
      (36)  Nobody knew the fact that the world is round.
     d) Generic
      (37)  The lizard is a reptile.
      (38)  The color blue is my favorite.
     All these have the diagram:
     (39)      N
              
        EPD[DEF]   N
          (the)
 7-9  [Other N EPD(Word)s] 
     Besides N EPDs {Indefinite}(INDF) and {Definite}(DEF), there are N EPD {Quantifier}(QUANT) and N EPD {Demonstrative}(DEM).
    (i) <QUANTs>
     (40) a.  This cost me one dollar/*dollars.     Nc(sg/*pl)
          b.  This cost me two dollars/*dollar.     Nc(pl/*sg)
     (41) a.  There are some books/*book.           Nc(pl/*sg)
          b.  There is some milk/*milks.            Nu(sg/*pl)
     (42) a.  She showed a few counterexamples/*counterexample.
                                                    Nc(pl/*sg)
          b.  She showed a little interest/*interests.
                                                    Nu(sg/*pl)
     (43) a.  She showed few counterexamples/*counterexample.
                                                    Nc(pl/*sg)
          b.  She showed little interest/*interests.
                                                    Nu(sg/*pl)
     (44) a.  They gave us many souvenirs/*souvenir.
                                                    Nc(pl/*sg)
          b.  They gave us much hospitality/*hospitalities.
                                                    Nu(sg/*pl)
     (45) a.  We have no car/cars.                  Nc(sg/pl)
          b.  We have no money/*moneys.             Nu(sg/*pl)

   (ii) <DEMs>
     (46) a.  The first man/men landed on the moon. Nc(sg/pl)
          b.  The last man/men left the ship.       Nc(sg/pl)
     (47) a.  This/That book/*books is mine.        Nc(sg/*pl)
          b.  These/Those books/*book are all mine. Nc(pl/*sg)
     (48) a.  Each member/*members agreed.          Nc(sg/*pl)
          b.  Every member/*members agreed.         Nc(sg/*pl)
          c.  All members/*member agreed.           Nc(pl/*sg)
     (49) a.  Neither answer/*answers is correct.   Nc(Sg/*Pl)
          b.  Both answers/*answer are correct.     Nc(Pl/*Sg)
     Notice that these are sensitive to countable/uncountable, and/or singular/plural.

 7-10  [A(D) EPD {Comparative}: CMP] 
     The A(D) EPDs, by definition, expand A(D)s.  Among them are those which carry the meaning of {Comparative}.  We call them an A(D) EPD {Comparative} or CMP; they are "-er" or "more".  The "-er" attaches to a rather short word of one or two syllables, and the "more" goes with a rather long word of two or more syllables.  For instance,
    (i) A EPDs {Comparative}
      (50) a.  John is shorter than Dex.
           b. *John is more short than Dex.
      (51) a.  Mary is more talkative than Susan.
           b. *Mary is talkativer than Susan.

   (ii) AD EPDs {Comparative}
      (52) a.  Dan eats faster than Joe.
           b. *Dan eats more fast than Joe.
      (53) a.  Grandma talks more slowly than Grandpa.
           b. *Grandma talks slowlier than Grandpa.
     Although "-er" joins itself to be a word and "more" makes a phrase, both have the same meaning {Comparative} and the same function;that is, expansion.  The diagrams of the underlined parts in (50a), (51a), (52a) and (53a) are respectively:
    (i) A EPD {Comparative}
      (54)    (shorter)            (55)    (more talkative)
                   A                                A
                                              
               A    EPD[CMP]                EPD[CMP]    A
           (short)   (-er)                  (more)   (talkative)

   (ii) AD EPD {Comparative}
      (56)    (faster)              (57)    (more slowly)
                  AD                              AD
                                             
             AD   EPD[CMP]              EPD[CMP]      AD
           (fast)    (-er)                (more)   (slowly)
     Generally speaking, the "-er" type of A(D)s will not accept "more", and vice versa.  Exceptionally, however, some take both.
      (58) a.  lovelier            more lovely     (Baker, p.381)
           b.  narrower            more narrow
           c.  commoner            more common
           d.  pleasanter          more pleasant
      (59)     oftener             more often
     Some A(D)s with a long history remain in the old CMP forms.
      (60) a.  CMP  +  good  better/*gooder   [A EPDs]
           b.  CMP  +  bad  worse/*badder
           c.  CMP  +  little  less/*littler
      (61) a.  CMP  +  well  better/*weller   [AD EPDs]
           b.  CMP  +  badly  worse/*badlier
           c.  CMP  +  little  less/*littler
     Diagrams:
      (62)  (better/worse/less)    (63)  (better/worse/less)
                     A                            AD
                                             
           EPD[CMP]      A               EPD[CMP]     AD
                    (good/bad/little)            (well/badly/little)
 7-11  [A(D) EPD {Superlative}: SUP] 
     English has another group of A(D) EPDs, which is A(D) EPD {Superlative} or SUP.  This is expressed by "-est" or "most".  The "-est" attaches to a rather short word of one or two syllables and the "most" goes with a rather long word of two or more syllables.
   (i) A EPDs {Superlative}
      (64) a.  John is the shortest.
           b. *John is the most short.
      (65) a.  Mary is the most talkative.
           b. *Mary is the talkativest.

  (ii) AD EPDs {Superlative}
      (66) a.  Dan eats fastest.
           b. *Dan eats most fast.
      (67) a.  Grandma talks most slowly.
           b. *Grandma talks slowliest.
     Diagrams of the underlined parts in (64a), (65a), (66a) and (67a):
      (68)    (shortest)          (69)    (most talkative)
                   A                               A
                                              
               A    EPD[SUP]              EPD[SUP]      A
            (short)  (-est)                (most)   (talkative)

      (70)    (fastest)            (71)    (most slowly)
                  AD                             AD
                                            
               AD   EPD[SUP]           EPD[SUP]      AD
             (fast)   (-est)             (most)   (slowly)
A rare example which can take both "-est" and "most" is,
      (72) a.  oftenest
           b.  most often
     Some adjectives, with SUP added, turns to be irregular forms.
      (73) a.  SUP + good    best/*goodest   [A EPDs]
           b.  SUP + bad     worst/*baddest
           c.  SUP + little  least/*littlest
      (74) a.  SUP + well  best/*wellest   [AD EPDs]
           b.  SUP + badly  worst/*badliest
           c.  SUP + little  least/*littlest
 7-12  [OMNI EPD: OMNI] 
     Thus far we have studied:
    (i) N EPDs ("-s", "-es", "the", "some", etc.)
   (ii) A(D) EPDs ("-er", "more", "-est", "most", etc.)
     Later on we will study:
  (iii) V EPDs (cf.12-1`16-3)
   (iv) S EPDs (cf.17-1`21-8)
     In addition to these, English has a unique type of EPDs which expand all major morphemes(N,A,V,AD) and S.  We call these an OMNI EPD or OMNI(cf.8-6, OM-NI CVT).
    (v) OMNI EPDs("and", etc.) 
     The most common OMNI EPD is "and".  This EPD connects two or more major morphemes, or even sentences, without changing their grammatical categories.  Examples:
      (75) a.  ham and eggs  (N and N  N)
           b.  good and old  (A and A  A)
           c.  hit and run   (V and V  V)
           d.  slowly and carefully  (AD and AD  AD)
           e.  Joe loves Jill and Jill loves Ken.  (S and S  S)
     The diagram of the first example (75a) is,
      (76)      (ham and eggs)    [Expansion]
                      N
                    |    
                N  EPD[OMNI]  N
             (ham)   (and)   (eggs)
     The only condition for "and" is that the elements to be combined should be of the same grammatical category.  Therefore, (77a) to (77d) are ungrammatical.
      (77) a. *N  and A
           b. *N  and V
           c. *V  and AD
           d. *AD and N
     When more than two elements are connected by "and", usually only the last "and" remains.
      (78) a. N, N, and N
           b. A, A, and A
           c. V, V, and V
           d. AD, AD, and AD
           e. S,S, and S
     Other OMNI EPDs:
      (79)  Here or to go?
      (80)  Johnny is slow but steady.
      (81)  This is beneficial to both you and me.
      (82)  Either you or I am wrong.
      (83)  These kids speak not only English but also Spanish.

Copyright(C) 2004 Masaya Oba. All rights reserved.