LEARNER'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2004 by Masaya Oba

8-1  [Kinds of Convertors(CVTs)]
     In the previous lesson, we studied EPDs which,as minor morphemes, expand major morphemes without changing their grammatical categories.
     In this section we will examine the other type of minor morphemes, convertors(CVTs). CVTs always change the category of the major morphemes. Theoretically the kinds of CVTs are as follows.

    (i) a) noun-adjective convertor(N-A CVT)
               (In this book, a CVT which changes a noun(N) into an 
                adjective(A) is called a noun-adjective convertor(N-A 
                CVT).  The same rule holds hereafter.)
        b) noun-verb convertor(N-V CVT)
        c) noun-adverb convertor(N-AD CVT)
        d)*noun-setence convertor(N-S CVT) 

   (ii) a) adjective-noun convertor(A-N CVT)
        b) adjective-verb convertor(A-V CVT)
        c) adjective-adverb convertor(A-AD CVT)
        d)*adjective-sentence convertor(A-S CVT)

  (iii) a) verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT)
        b) verb-adjective convertor(V-A CVT)
        c) verb-adverb convertor(V-AD CVT)
        d)*verb-sentence convertor(V-S CVT)

   (iv) a) adverb-noun convertor(AD-N CVT)
        b) adverb-adjective convertor(AD-A CVT)
        c) adverb-verb convertor(AD-V CVT)
        d)*adverb-sentence convertor(AD-S CVT)

    (v) a) sentence-noun convertoriS-N CVTj
        b) sentence-adjective convertor(S-A CVT)
        c)*sentence-verb convertor(S-V CVT)
        d) sentence-adverb convertor(S-AD CVT)

In English, however, there is no CVT with * in the above. Thus, English has 15 kinds of CVTs.
The core nature of CVTs is "category-changing". All CVTs, without exception, convert major morphemes into another grammatical category as in:

      (1)    CVT + X    Y

Diagram:

      (2)             Y
                     
                 CVT      X

8-2 [N-A CVT(Affix)F"-ful" and "-'s"]
The affix "-ful" is an N-A CVT.

      (3)      careful      iDerivation)

Diagram:

      (4)     (careful)
                   A
                  
              N     CVT[N-A]
            (care)   ( -ful)

In the above, the noun "care" is changed into the adjective "careful" by the addition of the N-A CVT, "-ful".
Other examples:

      (5) a.  John is a careless driver.
          b.  Chris is still childish.
          c.  They were all friendly there.
          d.  This job is quite troublesome.

In the following example, the noun "Mom" is changed into the adjective "Mom's" by the N-A CVT, "-'s".

      (6)  Mom's bike  (Inflection)
      (7)      (Mom's)
                   A
                  
              N     CVT[N-A]
            (Mom)     (-'s)

The N-A CVT "-'s" is very productive in that it can be added to all animate nouns and quite a few inanimate nouns.
Other examples:

      (8) a.  Mary's dress
          b.  Chicago's mayor
          c.  the boy's cap

8-3 [N-A CVT(Affix) "-'s" vs N-A CVT(Word) "of"]
Compare (9a) with (9b). Their meanings are the same.

      (9)   a.  Japan's economy
            b.  the economy of Japan

In this book, therefore, we analyze them as follows.

      (10)      (Japan's)
                     A
                     
                N     CVT[N-A]
             (Japan)    (-'s)

      (11)      (of Japan)
                     A
                     
            CVT[N-A]      N
              (of)    (Japan)

     In (10) the affix N-A CVT "-'s" changes the noun "Japan" into the adjective "Japan's", while in (11) the word N-A CVT "of" changes the noun "Japan" into the adjective phrase "of Japan".

8-4  [N-A(D) CVT(Word)]: "by", etc.]
     The CVT "by" changes nouns into adjectives and also into adverbs.

      (12)  Look at the tall man by the window.
      (13)  Stand by the window.

The CVT "by" in (12), together with "the window", makes the adjective phrase "by the window" which expands the noun phrase "the tall man". On the other hand, the same combination of "by" and "the window" makes the adverb phrase in (13), because it expands the verb "stand".
Diagrams:

      (14)  (by the window)        (15)  (by the window)
                   A                           AD
                                          
          CVT[N-A]     N              CVT[N-AD]     N
            (by)    (the window)        (by)    (the window)

Thus the CVT "by" works both as an N-A CVT and as an N-AD CVT. For convenience we call this type of CVT a noun-adjective/adverb convertor(N-A(D) CVT).
Some other examples of N-A(D) CVTs:

     (16) a.  They were on the way to school.    [N-A]
          b.  They went to school.                [N-AD]
     (17) a.  The water in the bathtub somehow disappeared. [N-A]
          b.  I can sing pretty well in the bathtub.       [N-AD]
     (18) a.  My boss saw his secretary with me.           [N-A]
          b.  Come with me.                                [N-AD]
     (19) a.  Mental development at the age of three has been 
              researched thoroughly.                           [N-A]
          b.  Jimmy was given a piggybank at the age of three.[N-AD]

The above "of", "by", "to", "in", "with" and "at" are the most common. Common N-A(D) CVTs including the above six are:

      <Common N-A(D) CVTs>
      (20)  about     before    despite   of          to
            above     behind    down      off         toward(s)
            across    below     during    on          under
            after     beneath   for       out         until
            against   beside    from      over        up
            along     besides   in        since       upon
            among     between   into      through     with
            around    beyond    like      throughout  within
            at        by        near      till        without

Examples of N-A(D) CVTs in the phrase level:

      (21) a.  The foreigner spoke to the man in front of me. [N-A]
           b.  Don't stand in front of me.                   [N-AD]
      (22) a.  Absence because of the storm can't be excused. [N-A]
           b.  The game was cancelled because of the storm.  [N-AD]

8-5 [N-A(D) CVTs with Multiple Meanings]
One N-A(D) CVT can have different meanings.

      (23) a.  The dictionary was lying on the bookshelf.            (Place)
           b.  The graduation ceremony will take place on March 20th. (Time)
           c.  I need some books on American history for my assignment.
                                                                   (Relation)
      (24) a.  He rarely stayed in the same town for more than a week. (Time)
           b.  Thank you for calling.                                (Reason)
           c.  Let's go for a drive in my new car.                  (Purpose)

8-6 [OM-NI CVT: "ø"]
Just as there are OMNI EPDs(cf.7-12), there is an OM-NI CVT, that is, "ø". This CVT can change any grammatical category into another one.

     (i) "ø" to convert nouns
      (25) a.  [ø + boy] + friend   boy friend  [N-A]
           b.  [ø + breakfast] + -ed   breakfast(ed)  [N-V]
           c.  [ø + yesterday]   yesterday    [N-AD]

    (ii) "ø" to convert adjectives
      (26)     [ø+ valuable] +  -s    [A-N]

   (iii) "ø" to convert verbs
      (27)     bus + [ø + stop]     [V-N]

    (iv) "ø" to convert adverbs
      (28)     unlike + [ø + in UK]    [AD-N]

     (v) "ø" to convert sentences
      (29)     I think + [ø + [you told a lie]]    [S-N]

8-7 [Summary of Morphemes]
From lessons 1 to 8, we see all morphemes belong to one of four major morphemes or one of two minor morphemes.

     (i)  Grammatical Categories expressed by Major Morphemes
          a) Noun (N)
          b) Adjective (A)
          c) Verb (V)
          d) Adverb (AD)

     (ii)  Grammatical Categories expressed by Minor Morphemes
          a) Expander (EPD)
          b) Convertor (CVT)

All morphemes, by expansion or conversion, will turn into one of major categories which in turn can be expanded or converted into the same or different type of major categories. In the mid-stage, a unit of "N+V", which is called a sentence(S) for convenience, often results. Thus, expansions and conversions are repeated recursively among these five grammatical categories: N, A, V, AD, and S.