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Chapter IV SENTENCE EXPANSION |
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Lesson 18 Negative Sentences(EMPH-NEG-S/NEG-S/etc.)
18-1 [Emphatic Negative Sentence (EMPH-NEG-S)]
A kernel sentence(K-S) may expand into another sentence(S) with a new grammatical meaning {Emphatic Negation} added, which in this book is called an emphatic negative sentence, or, EMPH-NEG-S.
(1)a. John is a vegetarian.
b. John ISN'T a vegetarian.
(2)a. John likes onions.
b. John DOESN'T like onions.
Emphatic negative sentences (1b) and (2b) are derived from kernel sentences (1a) and (2a) respectively. Thus,
(3) {Emphatic Negation} + Kernel Sentence(K-S)
If we name the S EPD {Emphatic Negation} an EMPH-NEG, the derivations in (1) and (2) will be shown as follows.
(4) EMPH-NEG + K-S(John is a vegetarian) [-DO Type]
18-2 [Diagrams] The derivations in (4) and (5) are shown in the diagrams:
(i) -DO Type
(6) (John ISN'T a vegetarian)
EMPH-NEG-S
18-3 [Operations of EMPH-NEG] The expander EMPH-NEG triggers two steps.
<EMPH-NEG>
Step 1: Add EMPH to a kernel sentence(K-S).
(Operator Specification)
Step 2: Add N'T/NOT to the operator.
The following demonstrates the two steps.
(8) EMPH-NEG + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type]
Some other EMPH-NEG-S examples.
(i) -DO Type
(10) Bill CAN'T speak Esperanto.
(11) The game last night WASN'T cancelled.
(12) Mary HADN'T seen snow before.
(ii) +DO Type
(13) I DON'T have a driver's license.
(14) The boss DOESN'T look happy today.
(15) The train DIDN'T arrive on time.
18-4 [Simple Negative Sentence(NEG-S)] An emphatic negative sentence(EMPH-NEG-S) may often change into a simple negative sentence with no emphatic tone by removing the operator accent.
(i) -DO Type
(16)a. John ISN'T a vegetarian. (EMPH-NEG-S) (=1b)
b. John isn't a vegetarian. (NEG-S)
(ii) +DO Type
(17)a. John DOESN'T like onions.(EMPH-NEG-S) (=2b)
b. John doesn't like onions.(NEG-S)
Thus, English negative sentences have two types; emphatic and simple. In contrast with the former EMPH-NEG-S, we call the latter a simple negative sentence, or, NEG-S. What changes a kernel sentence(K-S) into a simple negative sentence(NEG-S) is an S EPD {Simple Negation}, or, NEG.Thus, the expansion from a kernel sentence(K-S) to a simple negative sentence(NEG-S) is:
(18) NEG + K-S
Diagrams of (16b) and (17b):
(19) (John isn't a vegetarian)
NEG-S
18-5 [Operations of NEG] NEG triggers two steps.
<NEG>
Step 1: Add EMPH-NEG to a kernel sentence(K-S).
Step 2: Remove the accent on the operator and N'T/NOT.
Sentences (16b) and (17b) are generated as follows.
(21) NEG + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type]
Step 1
[John ISN'T a vegetarian]
Step 2
[John isn't a vegetarian]
(22) NEG + [John likes onions] [+DO Type]
Step 1
[John DOESN'T like onions]
Step 2
[John doesn't like onions]
Other examples:
(i) -DO Type
(23) Bill can't speak Esperanto.
(24) The game last night wasn't cancelled.
(25) Mary hadn't seen snow before.
(ii) +DO Type
(26) I don't have a driver's license.
(27) The boss doesn't look happy today.
(28) The train didn't arrive on time.
18-6 [Scopes of (EMPH-)NEG: Sentence vs Word/Phrase] The expanders N'T/NOT/n't/not sometimes have a wide scope which encompasses a whole sentence, and sometimes the scope is as narrow as a word or a phrase. Sentences (10) to (15) and (23) to (28) are all examples of sentence negation, and the following (29) to (32) are those of word/phrase negation. Generally speaking, the word/phrase negation is brought about by (EMPH-)NEG plus (i)accent, (ii)100% word, or (iii)pause.
(i) <(EMPH-)NEG+Accent>
(29)a. TOM didn't give her a cake. (Declerck, p.36)
b. Tom didn't GIVE her a cake.
c. Tom didn't give HER a cake.
d. Tom didn't give her a CAKE.
(ii) <(EMPH-)NEG+100% Word>
(30) What the dictionary says is not always correct.
(31) Not all water is good to drink.
(iii) <(EMPH-)NEG+Pause>
(32)a. You may |not stay here. (Quirk, p.1110)
b. You may not |stay here.
Diagrams of (29a), (30), (32a):
(33) (TOM didn't give her a cake)
NEG-S
18-7 [Scope of an Adverb vs Scope of an (EMPH-)NEG] Since both an adverb(AD) and a negative expander(EMPH-NEG/NEG) can expand a sentence(S), the scope varies case by case when the two co-occur.
(36) A big typhoon is not coming soon.
(37) Reportedly a big typhoon is not coming.
In (36) the sentence(S) including the adverb(AD) "soon" is the scope of "not", while in (37) the sentence including the negative expander "not" is the scope of "reportedly".Diagrams of (36) and (37):
(38) (A big typhoon is not coming soon)
NEG-S
Sometimes, however, it's difficult to tell one from the other.
(40)a. She definitely didn't speak to him. (Quirk, p.787)
b. Definitely she didn't speak to him.
c. She didn't definitely speak to him.
Sentence (40a) can mean both (40b) and (40c).18-8 [Polarity] Some particular words and phrases never appear without negative expanders such as N'T/NOT/n't/not.
(i) Always with N'T/NOT/n't/not
(41)a.* John gave a red cent.
b. John didn't give a red cent.
(42)a.* They will lift a finger for us.
b. They won't lift a finger for us.
(43)a.* You're a child any more.
b. You're not a child any more.
Others never appear with N'T/NOT/n't/not.
(ii) Always without N'T/NOT/n't/not
(44)a.* It isn't pretty late. (Quirk, p.778)
b. It's pretty late.
(45)a.* This cake isn't delicious. (Mc, p.570)
b. This cake is delicious.
18-9 [Other Negative Elements] English has some other negative elements.
(46)a. unhappy
b. dishonest
c. nonpolitical
(47)a. I have no friends.
b. I have no time.
(48)a. I have few friends/*time.
b. I have little time/*friends.
(49)a. We hardly eat chicken.
b. We rarely eat chicken.
c. We seldom eat chicken.
(50) I'll never forget this.
In this book underlined elements in (46) are claimed to be A EPDs, with those in (47) and (48) N EPDs, those in (49) adverbs(ADs), and "never" in (50) an S EPD {Negation}. |
Emphatic Negative Sentence(EMPH-NEG-S)
EPD[EMPH-NEG] K-S
(N'T) (John is a vegetarian)
(ii) +DO Type
(7) (John DOESN'T like onions)
EMPH-NEG-S
Step 1
[John IS a vegetarian]
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Copyright(C) 2004 Masaya Oba. All rights reserved. |
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