ø¢11-1-NT-(A)@manaphoricn
–{—ˆAanaphorici‘O•ûƉž“Ij‚ÍAKruisinga,E.(Vol.3, $$1014-15)‚Ȃǂ̗pŒê
‚ÅAŽŸ‚Ì—á‚̂悤‚ÉA‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚â’èŠ¥ŽŒ‚ªA‚·‚Å‚Éq‚ׂ½Ž–•¿‚âŠÏ”O‚ÉŒ¾‹y‚·‚é—p–@‚ð‚³‚·B
1) I have a son. He is seven years old.
2) We keep a dog and are all fond of the dog.
3) They will probably win the match. That will please my brother.
2)‚̂悤‚É’èŠ¥ŽŒ‚Ìthe‚ªŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚邯‚¢‚¤‚̂͋»–¡[‚¢B‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉA‰o‚Ì
‚à‚Ì‚Ídeictic(’¼Ž¦“Ij‚ƌĂÔB
ø¢11-1-NT-(B)@m‚m/‚`/‚u/‚`‚c/‚r‚Ìd•¡n
d•¡‚ÍA–¼ŽŒi‚mjAŒ`—eŽŒi‚`jA“®ŽŒi‚ujA•›ŽŒi‚`‚cjA•¶i‚r)‚Ì‚»‚ê
‚¼‚ê‚Ì•¶–@ƒJƒeƒSƒŠ|i•iŽŒj‚Å‹N‚±‚蓾‚éB‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA–¼ŽŒi‚mj‚Ì’Pƒ”½•œi”
‚PjA‚`‚m‚`Œ`i”‚QjA
Œ`i”‚RjAŒ`—eŽŒi‚`j‚Ì’Pƒ”½•œi”‚PjA‚`‚m‚`Œ`
i”‚QjA
Œ`i”‚Rj...‚̂悤‚ÉAã‹L‚T‚‚̕¶–@ƒJƒeƒSƒŠ|i•iŽŒj‚Å‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚R
‚Âi”‚P`”‚Rj‚ÌŒ`‚ª‰Â”\‚ƂȂéB
‚½‚¾‚µA•¶i‚rj‚Ìd•¡‚ÉŠÖ‚µ‚Ă͒ˆÓ‚ð—v‚·‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎA¡¼Eó–ìip.14)
‚É‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È•¶i‚rj‚ÌÆ‰žŒ`‚̗Ⴊ‚ ‚邪A
1) They say that she's fat now, but I don't believe {it/so}.
[=that she's ...]
2) John is telling lies. I agree
.
[=that John is ...]
1)‚Í•¶i‚rj‚Ìd•¡Æ‰žŒ`‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚æ‚è‚Í•¶i‚rj‚©‚ç“]Š·‚³‚ꂽ–¼ŽŒi‚mjß‚ÌÆ‰žŒ`A
2)‚ÍŽ©“®ŽŒagree ‚Ì—á‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB•¶i‚r)‚ÌÆ‰žŒ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍA‚Þ‚µ‚ëAŽŸ‚̂悤‚ÈŒ`
‚ªl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
3) Kim may be too ill to attend; if so I'll have to ask you to chair
the meeting. (Huddleston & Pullum, p.1462)
ˆê•ûAŽŸ‚Ì the bastard ‚ª John ‚Æ‚¢‚¤–¼ŽŒi‚mj‚ÌÆ‰žŒ`‚Æ”F‚߂闧ê‚ð‚Æ
‚ê‚ÎA
4) John borrowed $100 from me, and the bastard never paid me back.
i¡¼Eó–ì, p.12)
ŽŸ‚Ì the abovei—á•¶‘åêj‚à‚Ü‚½A•¶i‚rj‚â•¶Í‚ÌÆ‰žŒ`‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚ƂɂȂ邩‚à‚µ
‚ê‚È‚¢B
5) Thus we're against the miniskirts on campus.
As in the above, ....
‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉAQuirk et al.(1972, $$4-36)‚ÍAthe above‚ðÆ‰žŒ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éB
(cf.‘å’ËE’†“‡Ap.78)
ø¢11-1-NT-(C)@m“¯ˆê—v‘f‚Ìd•¡¨iꇂɂæ‚èj’Pƒ”½•œ^‚`‚m‚`Œ`^
@@@@@@@@@íœi
Œ`jn
‚±‚±‚ł͖¼ŽŒi‚mj‚Ìd•¡‚ÉÅ“_‚ð‚ ‚Ä‚ÄA’Pƒ”½•œ^‚`‚m‚`Œ`^íœi
Œ`j
‚Ì‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚Ì—á‚ðŒ©‚Ä‚Ý‚æ‚¤B
ƒ–¼ŽŒi‚m)‚Ì’Pƒ”½•œi”‚Pj‚Ì—á„
(i) Bolinger‚Ì—á
BolingerAD.(1979, p.291)‚ÍAŽwަ•¨‚Ì–{Ž¿‚ð‹’²iemphasis on the nature
of the referentj‚µ‚½‚¢‚Æ‚«–¼ŽŒ‚Í‚‚è•Ô‚³‚ê‚éA‚ÆŽå’£‚·‚éB
1) You don't need sulfur for drying apricots;sulfur ruins the flavor.
(It ruins the flavor.‚Æ‚·‚邯sulfur‚Ìinherent quality‚ð‹’²‚Å‚«‚È‚¢j
“¯—l‚ÉAJoe ‚Ì—˜ŒÈ“I‚È«Ž¿inaturally celf-centered)‚ð‹’²‚·‚邯‚«‚É‚Í
ŽŸ‚̂悤‚ɂȂéB
2) When Joe enters a conversation, Joe expects Joe's friends
to listen to Joe.
ŽŸ‚Ì—á‚à‚Ü‚½A‚±‚Ìà‚ðŽxŽ‚·‚邿‚¤‚ÉŽv‚í‚ê‚éB2003”N7ŒŽ28“ú‚ÉCNN‚É“oê
‚µ‚½•Ä‘‚НiMr.Myers)‚̃Rƒƒ“ƒg‚Å‚ ‚éB
3) If Saddam is alive, we will get Saddam.
(ii) Quirk et al.‚Ì—á
Quirk et al.(1985, pp.1072-73)‚ÍAŽåß‚©‚ç—£‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚é (more peripheral
to their superordinate clausejcontent disjunct(ex.although-clause) ‚ł͒Pƒ”½
•œ‚Í‚¨‚¨‚Þ‚Ë•s‰Â‚¾‚ªA˜b‚µŽè‚̑ԓx‚ð•\‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚é style disjunct(ex.since-clause)
‚ÌꇂɂÍA‚µ‚΂µ‚΂‚è•Ô‚µ‚n‚jimore readily allows the repetition of a noun
phrase)‚Æ‚·‚éB
4) a. Elizabeth enjoyed last night's concert although the program
was not entirely to ?Elizabeth's/her taste.
b. Elizabeth enjoyed last night's concert since Elizabeth's/her
brother told me so.
(iii) –q–ì‚Ì—á
–q–ìip.118)‚ÍA’k˜bƒŒƒxƒ‹‚ł͓¯ˆê–¼ŽŒ‚Ì’Pƒ”½•œ‚Í–Ú—§‚‚Ƃ¢‚¤B‚»‚µ‚ÄA
i•¶Í‚ÌjŠe’i—Ž‚Ì‰•¶‚Å Nixon ‚ª”½•œoŒ»‚·‚鎟‚̂悤‚ȃjƒ…|ƒYƒEƒC|ƒN‚Ì—á‚ð‚
‚°‚Ä‚¢‚éB
5) My own perception had always been that Nixon simply
began to erase all of the Watergate material from the tapes
when he started to worry that they might be exposed.
But Nixon was the least dexterous man I have ever known
--- especially at operating tape recorders. Once, he decided
to make a practice of dictating his thoughts and reactions
during evenings and on weekends. So he instructed me to
obtain several tape recorders for him to use at Camp David,
San Clamente and Key Biscayne.
ƒ–¼ŽŒi‚m)‚Ì‚`‚m‚`Œ`i”‚Qj‚Ì—á„
•ÏŒ`¶¬•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAu‚ ‚铌êã‚ÌðŒ‰º‚Å–¼ŽŒ‚ð‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ɕς¦‚é•ÏŒ`v‚Í
pronominalization ‚ƌĂ΂êA‹`–±“I‚È(obligatory)ƒ‹|ƒ‹‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éB‚½‚µ‚©‚É‘½‚‚Ì
—Ⴊ‚±‚̃‹|ƒ‹‚ðŽxŽ‚·‚éB‚µ‚©‚µ‚È‚ª‚çAŋ߂ł͂±‚ê‚É”½—á‚ðo‚µAˆÙ˜_‚𥂦‚é
•¶–@‰Æ‚ào‚Ä‚¢‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAvan Hoek(pp.2-6)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
(i)Reinhart,T.(1976‚È‚Ç)‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä’ñ¥‚³‚ꂽ 'c-command' ‚Æ‚¢‚¤ŠT”O‚Í
Chomsky,N.(1981) ‚Ì Binding Conditions of Government-Binding Theory ‚Ì core‚Æ
‚È‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚邪A‚±‚Ìc-command—˜_‚ł͎Ÿ‚Ì—á‚ªà–¾‚Å‚«‚È‚¢B(p.6)
6) a.*I spoke to him about finances in Ben's office.
(him ‚ª Ben ‚ð c-command ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚È‚¢‚̂ɖj
7) a.*Her wish is that Sally will become a physicist.
b. Her mother is Sally's best friend.
(ii)ˆê•ûA‚b‚f(Cognitive Grammar)‚̘g‘g‚݂łÍAanaphora constraints ‚Í“Æ
—§‚µ‚½ syntactic principles ‚ł͂ȂA‚Q‚Â‚Ì nominals ‚ÌŠÔ‚Ì 'reference point'
( =Chafe's 'starting point' )‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é semantic ‚ÈŠÖŒWiprominence ‚ ‚é‚¢‚Í
salience‚ ‚é‚à‚Ì‚ª reference point ‚Æ‚È‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤l‚¦•û)‚ð‚ ‚ç‚í‚·B(p.5)
‚±‚Ì‚b‚f‚̘g‘g‚݂łÍA'prominence'‚ɂ͂r‚t„‚c‚n„‚h‚n„‚n‚a‚kicf.Keenan
and Comrie, 1977j‚Ì hierarchy ‚ª‚ ‚è(p.10)A‚Ü‚½ head ‚Ì complements ‚Ì•û‚ª
modifiers‚æ‚èmore prominentip.11)‚Å‚ ‚邯‚³‚ê‚éB‚»‚µ‚ÄŽŸ‚Ì 8-b) ‚͈Ӗ¡“I‚È
prominence ‚ª word order ‚æ‚è—Dæ‚·‚é—á‚Æ‚µ‚Äà–¾‚³‚ê‚éB
8) a.*He saw a skunk near Ralph. (van Hoek, p.66)
b.*Near Ralph, he saw a skunk.
‚µ‚©‚µA‚±‚̂悤‚È‚b‚f‚̘g‘g‚Ý‚Å‚àŽŸ‚̂悤‚Èmain/embedded sentences ‚Ì—á
‚ªà–¾‚Å‚«‚È‚¢BŽŸ‚Ì9-b)‚̂悤‚ÈBrugman and Lakoff(1987)‚Ì—á‚Í main clause
(primary reference point)‚©‚çembedded sentence(secondary reference point)‚Ö‚Ì
conceptual path ‚Ì—¬‚ê‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚b‚f‚Ìl‚¦•û‚ł͎è‚É•‰‚¦‚È‚¢‚̂ł ‚éB(p.92)
9) a.*Mary hit him just before John got up.
b. Mary hit him before John had a chance to get up.
van Hoek ‚ÍA9-a)‚ÍŒ»ŽÀ‚É‹N‚±‚Á‚½‚Å‚«Ž–(event)A9-b)‚ÍŽåßA]‘®ß‚ÌŠÔ‚É
conceptual discontinuity ‚ª‚ ‚é‚Æà–¾‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB
(iii)Œ‹‹ÇAvan Hoek ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAc-command ‚Æ‚¢‚¤ syntactic ‚Șg‘g‚݂ɂæ‚é
"pronominalization" ‚Ìà–¾‚àA‚b‚f‚̘g‘g‚݂ɂæ‚é semantic ‚È"reference points"
‚Ìà–¾‚à‚Æ‚à‚ÉŠ®‘S‚Ƃ͌¾‚¦‚È‚¢‚±‚ƂɂȂéB
Œ‹‹ÇAŒ»’iŠK‚Å‚ÌA‚±‚Ì–{‚ÌŒ‹˜_‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍABolinger, D.(1979, ‚.290)‚ÌŒ¾‚¤
‚悤‚ÉAu‚¢‚ pronoun ‚ðŽg‚¢A‚¢‚–¼ŽŒ‚ð‚»‚Ì‚Ü‚Ü repeat ‚·‚é‚Ì‚©‚ð’m‚邽‚߂ɂÍ
—˜_‚Ì‹c˜_‚æ‚è‚à‚Á‚Æ‚¢‚ë‚¢‚ë‚ȃRƒ“ƒeƒLƒXƒg‚ð‚µ‚Á‚©‚è‚ÆŒ©’è‚ß‚é•K—v‚ª‚ ‚év(What
we need at this point is not more theory but a steady look at the possibilities
in a variety of situations and contexts.)‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚ƂɂȂ낤B
ƒ–¼ŽŒi‚m)‚Ì
Œ`i”‚Rj‚Ì—á„
¡¼Eó–ìi1990, p.12j‚ÍAŠù’m«‚𖾎¦‚·‚邯‚Æ‚à‚Éç’·«‚ð팸‚·‚é‹@”\
‚ðŽ‚ÂÆ‰žŒ`‚Ì‚¤‚¿A
‚âPRO‚ðu–³Œ`ƉžŒ`v‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAthey‚âthemselves‚ȂǂÌu—LŒ`
ƉžŒ`v‚ƂƂà‚ɉ¡‚È‚ç‚тłƂ炦‚Ä‚¢‚éBˆÈ‰ºA10), 11), 13), 14), 15)‚Í—LŒ`Ɖž
Œ`A12), 16) ‚ª–³Œ`ƉžŒ`‚Ì—á‚Å‚ ‚éB
10) The candidates said that they would win. [the candidates]
11) The candidates hate [themselves/each other]. [the candidates]
12) John persuaded Mary PRO to feed {*himself/herself} [Mary]
13) They broke a Chinese vase. That was valuable.[a Chinese vase]
14) John borrowed $100 from me, and the bastard never paid me back.
[John]
15) The tall boy in this room is younger than the one in that room.
[tall boy]
16) Jack's old car runs better than Mary's
. [old car]
‚±‚̂悤‚Éd•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹”‚P‚Æ”‚Q‚ð‰¡•À‚тɂƂ炦‚é—§êicf.Bolinger)‚ÆA”‚Q‚Æ”‚R
‚ð‰¡•À‚тɂƂ炦‚é—§ê(cf.¡¼Eó–ìj‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚邪A‚±‚Ì–{‚ł͔‚PA”‚QA”‚R‚ð‚R
‚Â‚Æ‚à‰¡•À‚тɂƂ炦‚é—§êicf.–q–ìj‚ð‚Æ‚éB
ø¢11-1-NT-(D)@mæs–¼ŽŒ•s—v‚Ì‚`‚m‚`Œ`i‚h‚È‚Çjn
I ‚â you ‚È‚ÇA•K‚¸‚µ‚àƒeƒLƒXƒgã‚ł͖¾‚ç‚©‚Èd•¡‚ªŒ©‚ç‚ê‚È‚¢i‚‚܂èA
æs–¼ŽŒ‚ª‚È‚A“Ë‘R“oê‚·‚éj‚à‚Ì‚à‚±‚±‚ł͂`‚m‚`Œ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚¤B‚»‚Ì——R‚Æ‚µ‚Ä
ŽŸ‚Ì (i)`(iv)‚ðŽQÆ‚³‚ꂽ‚¢B
(i)¡¼Eó–ìi1990, p.18)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
Ɖž‚ÍA“Œê“I‚ɃRƒ“ƒgƒ|ƒ‹‚³‚ê‚éu•\‘wƉžv‚ÆŒê—p˜_“I‚ɃRƒ“ƒgƒ|ƒ‹‚³
‚ê‚éu[‘wƉžv‚É‘å•Ê‚³‚ê‚éB‚»‚µ‚ÄA‚h‚âyou‚Í[‘wƉž‚̈êŽí‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éB‚Ü‚½A‚±
‚Ìu[‘wƉžv‚ÍAHalliday-Hasen ‚̘g‘g‚Ýicf.r–ØEˆÀˆä, pp.100-104)‚Å‚ÍuƒeƒN
ƒXƒg“àÆ‰žiendophora)v‚ɑ΂·‚éuŠOŠEƉžiexophora)v‚É‚ ‚½‚邯l‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
1) Halliday-Hasan(1976)‚̘g‘g‚Ý
anaphora
^ _
reference substitution
(“¯ˆê•¨Žwަj i‘ã—pj
^ _ ^ _
exophora endophora one,does,
(ŠOŠEƉžj (ƒeƒNƒXƒg“àÆ‰žj so, etc.
—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È’k˜bƒŒƒxƒ‹‚Å‚ÍA
2) A:Did the gardener water my hydrangeas?
B:He said so.
ƒeƒNƒXƒg“àÆ‰ž‚Í He = the gardenerBŠOŠEƉž‚ÍHe = ‚`A‚a‚ª‚Æ‚à‚É’m‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚é—¯Žç
”Ô‚ÌA—Ⴆ‚ÎAJohn‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚ƂɂȂéB
(ii)van Hoek(pp.48-49)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
morphology/syntax/discourse‚̃Jƒx‚ð‚Æ‚è‚Í‚ç‚Á‚½‚b‚f‚̘g‘g‚݂łÍAuspeaker
‚Í‚·‚Å‚É discourse context ‚̈ꕔ‚ɂȂÁ‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Ì‚ÅiŒ¾Œê•\Œ»‚Æ‚µ‚ÄæsŽŒ‚Í•K—v‚È
‚jAŽ©•ª‚ð objectively ‚É’ñަ‚µ‚½‚¢‚Æ‚«‚¾‚¯ I ‚ðŽg‚킸 full noun phrase ‚ðŽg
‚¤vBŽŸ‚Ì—á‚̂悤‚ÉB
3) Sometimes he can't believe what an idiot his father is.
(his father ‚ð I ‚Æ‚µ‚È‚©‚Á‚½‚Ì‚Í his son's perspective ‚ð‚Æ‚è“ü‚ꂽ
‚©‚Á‚½‚©‚çj
(iii)Bolinger, D.(1979, p.290)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
ƒRƒ“ƒeƒLƒXƒg‚ÅŽw‚µŽ¦‚³‚ê‚é‚à‚Ì‚ª–¾‚ç‚©‚ÈꇂÍAæs‚·‚é–¼ŽŒ‚ª‚È‚‚Ä‚à‘ã
–¼ŽŒ‚ÍŽg‚í‚ê‚éB
4) (Irate patient storms into office and accosts nurse) Where is he?
‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚̂悤‚È deictic use of the pronoun ‚̃P|ƒX(p.291)‚à‚ ‚éB
5) Who's he? (speaker points)
Quirk et al.(1985, p.861)‚ª situational recoverability ‚ª‚ ‚é pro-form
‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ ‚°‚Ä‚¢‚鎟‚Ì—á‚à“¯‚¶‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
6) Is she badly hurt?
(iv)Bolinger, D.(1979, p.293)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
‚»‚Ì–¼ŽŒ‚ª characterize ‚³‚ê‚éiPrior Identification, Familiarity ‚É’Ê‚¸
‚éjê‡‚É‚Íæs‚·‚é–¼ŽŒ‚Í•s—vB
7)a. *His pen is in John's pocket.
b. His pen is John's constant companion.
(Our picture of him is with pen in pocket)
‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍAI, you ‚Ȃǂ͂`‚m‚`Œ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ę_‚¸‚éB
ø¢11-1-NT-(E)@m‚SŽí—Þ‚Ì
F+/-d•¡A+/-‹`–±“In
“`“•¶–@‚Å‚¢‚¤ ellipsis ‚É‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚Q‚‚̃^ƒCƒv‚ª‚ ‚éB
1) Yes, they are (
). +d•¡ opt.
2) (
) Sorry I couldn't be there. -d•¡ opt.
‚±‚̂悤‚É ellipsis ‚̃|ƒCƒ“ƒg‚Í recoverability ‚Å‚ ‚èA•K‚¸‚µ‚à repetition ‚Å
‚͂Ȃ¢BŒ¾‚¢Š·‚¦‚ê‚ÎA ellipsis ‚Íí‚É optional ‚Å‚ ‚èAd•¡‚ª‚ ‚é‚©‚È‚¢‚©‚Í–³
ŠÖŒW‚Å‚ ‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAQuirk et al.(1985, p.858)‚ÍA coordination ‚â subordination
‚È‚ÇStructure Expansion ‚ɑ΂·‚é Structure Reduction ‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚Ä Pro-forms(12.8
-30) ‚Æ Ellipsis(12.331-70) ‚ðˆÊ’u‚¯‚éBŽŸ‚Ì 3-b) ‚Æ 3-c) ‚ª‚»‚Ì—á(p.82)‚Å‚ ‚éB
3)a. unreduced Yes, they ARE paying me for the work.
b. pro-form Yes, they ARE doing so.
c. ellipsis Yes, they ARE.
Quirk et al.‚ÌŒ¾‚¤ ellipsis ‚ÍApro-form ‚ƂƂà‚É reduction ‚Ì•ûô‚Æ‚µ‚Ä
‚Ì‚à‚̂ł ‚éB‚±‚Ì‚Q‚‚ÍAsyntax ƒŒƒxƒ‹‚Å‚ ‚ê discourse ƒŒƒxƒ‹‚Å‚ ‚êArecoverable
‚Å‚ ‚邯‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ª‘O’ñB
Swan, M.(1995, pp.172-180)‚àA(i) to avoid repetition ‚Æ (ii)when the
meaning can be understood without them ‚Ì‚Q‚‚Ìê‡‚ð‹æ•Ê‚¹‚¸“¯‚¶ellipsis ‚Ì—á
‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ ‚°‚Ä‚¢‚éB
(i)‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍAirepetition‚ ‚èj
4)a. a knife and (a) fork (p.172)
b. Do you want large eggs?/No, I'll have small (eggs). (p.173)
c. I haven't paid./I haven't (paid) either. (ibid.)
d. Are you and Gillian getting married?/We hope to(...).(ibid.)
(ii)‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍAirepetition‚È‚context‚ňӖ¡–¾‚ç‚©‚Èê‡j
5)a. (Have you) seen Lucy? (p.173)
b. I knew (that) she didn't want to help me. (p.174)
c. Start when (you are) ready. (ibid.)
d. See you (on) Monday night. (ibid.)
‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄASwan ‚Ì ellipsis ‚à‚Ü‚½A{recoverablei
‚Íoptional)‚Å‚ ‚èA{d•¡
/|d•¡‚Ì—¼•û‚Ìê‡‚ð‚³‚·B
‹»–¡[‚¢‚±‚Æ‚ÉAThomas,A.L.(1979, pp.43-68) ‚ÍAd•¡‚Ì‚ ‚é‚à‚Ì‚ð ellipsisA
d•¡‚̂Ȃ¢‚à‚Ì‚ð elision ‚ƌĂыæ•Ê‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB
(i)d•¡‚ ‚èAoptional‚È
<ellipsis>
6) A:Alf wants me to mend his car.
B:I wouldn't [mend his car/do so/
] if I were you.
(ii)d•¡‚È‚µAoptional‚È
<elision>
7) [
/I'll] see you later.
Thomas ‚Ì ellipsis/elision ‚ªAd•¡‚ª‚ ‚é/‚È‚¢‚Í‚Æ‚à‚©‚optional‚ȃӂðŽw
‚·‚à‚̂ł ‚éˆÈãAd•¡‚Ì‚ ‚é^‚È‚¢‚Í‚Æ‚à‚©‚ obligatory ‚È
‚ð‚³‚ª‚·‚±‚Ƃ͈Ӗ¡‚ª
‚ ‚é‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢BŒó•â‚Æ‚È‚é‚͎̂Ÿ‚Ì (iii) ‚Æ (iv)‚Å‚ ‚éB
(iii)d•¡‚ ‚èAobligatory ‚È
8)a. something to drink
b. be-en + VZ +
c. the book which I bought
yesterday
d. What do you think
of it?
(iv)d•¡‚È‚µAobligatory ‚È
9)a. two sheep+
b. We-work+
-on Saturdays.
c. [
/*To] Turn off the tap was all I did.(Quirk, et al. 1985, p.1067)
cf.[*
/That] John told a lie is obvious.
Œ‹‹ÇA
‚É‚ÍAd•¡‚É‚æ‚è¶‚¸‚é‚à‚Ì‚ÆAd•¡‚É‚æ‚ç‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚èA‚³‚ç‚É‚»
‚ꂼ‚ê‚É‹`–±“I‚È‚à‚̂ƔCˆÓ“I‚Ȃ̂à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚邯l‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB—Ⴆ‚Îd•¡‚É‚æ‚éê‡A
d•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹”‚R‚¾‚¯‚ª“K—p‚³‚ê‚éê‡A
‚Í‹`–±“I‚ƂȂèA”‚RˆÈŠO‚É‚à”‚P‚│Q‚ª
“K—p‚³‚ê‚éꇂɂÍA
‚Í”CˆÓ“I‚ƂȂéB“¯—l‚ÉAd•¡‚É‚æ‚ç‚È‚¢
‚ÌꇂɂàA‹`–±
“I‚ÈꇂƔCˆÓ“I‚Èꇂª‘¶Ý‚·‚éB
ø¢11-2-NT-(A)@m”‚P and/or ”‚Q and/or ”‚Rn
d•¡‚ª‹N‚±‚邯A”‚P`”‚R‚Ì“à‚Ì‚P‚ÂA‚Q‚ÂA‚Ü‚½‚Í‚R‚‚ª“K—p‚³‚ê‚éB‚±‚Ì
‚±‚Æ‚ÍA‚`‚m‚`Œ`‚ÌoŒ»i”‚Q‚Ì“K—pj‚É‚Í optional ‚Èê‡‚Æ obligatory ‚Ìꇂª
‚ ‚邯‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ðˆÓ–¡‚·‚éB
1) My car isn't working. I'll have to buy a new [car/one/*
]. #1 or #2
2) My car isn't working. I'll have to use Mary's [car/*one/
].#1 or #3
3) My car isn't working. I'll have to abandon [it/*
]. #2
4) A:Do you want large eggs?
B:No, I'll have small [eggs/ones/
]. #1,#2or#3
5) A:John lost his claim tag.
B:[John/He/
] lost his WHAT? #1,#2or#3
Œ‹‹ÇA”‚P`”‚R‚Ì‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚Ì‘I‘ð‚É‚ÍA‚»‚Ìud•¡v‚ª‚ǂ̂‚ç‚¢ clumsy ‚Å
u‚¤‚Á‚Æ‚¤‚µ‚¢v‚©‚ªŠÖ‚í‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚邯Žv‚í‚ê‚éB‚½‚¾‚µA‚±‚ê‚Í•¶–¬‚âƒCƒfƒCƒIƒ€«‚Æ
[‚ŠÖ‚í‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚邯Žv‚í‚êAŒ»Žž“_‚Å‚Ìà“¾—Í‚ ‚郋[ƒ‹‰»‚͂ނ‚©‚µ‚¢BŽŸ‚̂悤‚È
“‚ª‚ ‚é‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB
6)a. I washed *
/my face. [
:0%/my:100%]
b. I skipped
/my breakfast. [
:60%/my:40%]
c. I went to
/?my school. [
:90%/my:10%]
‰E’[‚Ì“‚ÍAŽ„‚̃Cƒ“ƒtƒH[ƒ}ƒ“ƒg‚̂ЂƂè(Alec:030214)‚É‚æ‚épossibility in context
(„’èj‚Å‚ ‚éB
ø¢11-2-NT-(B)@md•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹”‚Q‚Æ”‚R‚Ìì—pˆæn
d•¡‚ª‹N‚±‚邯A‚»‚Ìd•¡•”•ª‘S‚Ä‚ªd•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹”‚Q^”‚R‚Ìì—pˆæ‚ƂȂéê
‡‚ÆA‚»‚̈ꕔ‚݂̂ªì—pˆæ‚ƂȂéꇂª‚ ‚éB
(i) d•¡•”•ª‘S‚Ä‚ª”‚Q^”‚R‚Ìì—pˆæ‚ƂȂéê‡B
1)‚ÍLobeck,A.(p.53)‚Ì—áB2)‚Æ3)‚Í¡¼Eó–ìip.12)‚Ì—á‚Å‚ ‚éB
1)a. [Books by Chomsky] are on sale at Barnes and Noble and
Carrie wants to buy them.
b.*[Books by Chomsky] are on sale at Barnes and Noble and
Carrie wants to buy them by this well-known linguist.
2) The tall boy in this room is younger than the one
in that room. (one:=tall boy, =/=boy)
3) Jack's old car runs better than Mary's
.
(
:=old car, =/=car)
(ii)d•¡•”•ª‚̈ꕔ‚ª”‚Q^”‚R‚Ìì—pˆæ‚ƂȂéê‡B
ŽŸ‚Ì4)‚ÍHuddleston & Pullum(p.1538)A5)‚ÍMcCawley,J.D.i1988,
p.210j‚©‚ç‚Ì‚à‚̂ł ‚éB
4) A:Jill has misspelt our name.
B:So she has!
5)a. Fred must have been singing songs, and Nancy must
too.
b. Fred must have been singing songs, and Nancy must have
too.
c. Fred must have been singing songs, and Nancy must have been
too.
ø¢11-3-NT-(A)@mlÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ÌŒë—pn
Felix & Hahn(pp.223-238) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA‚P‚X‚W‚O”NA‰pŒê‚ð‹³Žº‚ÅŠw‚ÔƒhƒCƒc
l¶“ki‚P‚OÎ`‚P‚RÎj‚V‚O–¼‚Ì‘ã–¼ŽŒilÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚Æ‚»‚ÌŠ—LŠij‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚éŒë—p‚ð
’²‚ׂ½Œ‹‰ÊA
case > number > person > gender
‚Æ‚¢‚Á‚½features ‚ÌŠK‘wihierarchyj‚ª‚ ‚Á‚½‚Æ‚¢‚¤Bip.223)
(i) «igender)‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì ‚S‚WD‚R‚Q“ip.232)
—áFa) A:Has your mother a car-key, too?/B:Yes, he has.
b) He is in her room.
(ii) lÌiperson)‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì‚R‚OD‚O‚O“
—áFa) A:Have you a coat?/B:No, she hasn't.
b) She has a handbag in your hand.
‚ª‘½‚B
(iii) ”inumber)‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì ‚P‚OD‚O‚O“
—áFa) A:Why was he no longer there?/B:They was escaped.
b) The farmers sell his goods.
(iv) lÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ÆŠ—LŠi‚ÌŒë—p ‚VD‚T“
—áF Are your at home?
(v) Šiicase)‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì ‚SD‚P‚U“
—áF I can't remember he.
‚ª‚È‚©‚Á‚½B‚±‚ê‚ç‚̃f[ƒ^‚ÍA”팱ŽÒ‚½‚¿‚ÌL‚P‚ªƒhƒCƒcŒê‚Å‚ ‚邱‚Æ‚ðl‚¦‚邯
‹»–¡[‚¢B
‚Ü‚½AFillmore, C.(1976)‚É‚ÍA‚·‚×‚Ä‚Ì‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚Ì‘ã‚í‚è‚É'she'‚ðŽg‚¤Žq‹Ÿ‚Ì
—Ⴊ‚ ‚èAFelix, S.W.(1977,1979)‚É‚ÍA‰Šú‚É‚Í[{pronoun]‚Æ‚¢‚¤‘f«‚µ‚©‚È‚¢i‚µ
‚½‚ª‚Á‚Ä‚ ‚é‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ª‘¼‚Ì‘S‚Ä‚Ì‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚Ì‘ã—p‚ð‚·‚éjŽžŠú‚ª‚ ‚éA‚Ƃ̃Œƒ|[ƒg‚ª‚ ‚é
‚Æ‚¢‚¤B(p.229)
ø¢11-3-NT-(B)@m‚m0‚̈ʒu ¨ ŽåŠin
“ú–{l‚ɂƂÁ‚Ä«E”ElÌ‚ÌÆ‰ž‚ÍA“ú–{Œê‚É‚à•„‡‚·‚é‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚邽‚ß
(ship-she/her‚Ȃǂނ‚©‚µ‚¢‚à‚Ì‚à‚ ‚邪j‚»‚¤‚ނ‚©‚µ‚¢‚à‚̂ł͂Ȃ¢B‚½‚¾‚µA
Ši‚ÌŠT”O‚Í“ú–{Œê‚ł͉pŒê‚̂悤‚Ȍꇂł͂ȂA-wa, -o‚È‚Ç•ŽŒ‚Ì•t‰Á‚Å•\‚³‚ê
‚邽‚ß‚»‚ÌK“¾‚͂ނ‚©‚µ‚¢‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
1) John-wa Mary-o butta.
(John) (Mary) (hit)
2) Mary-wa John-o butta.
(Mary) (John) (hit)
3) kare-wa kanojo-o butta.
(he) (her) (hit)
4) kanojo-wa kare-o butta.
(she) (him) (hit)
ˆê•û‚ÅAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å•K—v‚Æ‚³‚ê‚é‚Ì‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È•¶i‚rj‚ÅA
5) John gave Mary a buquet with a card.
‚m0 ‚m1 ‚m2 ‚m3
‚m0 ‚̈ʒu‚ÅŽg‚í‚ê‚é‚`‚m‚`Œ`iI, he, she, we, they ‚È‚Çj‚Æ‚m1`3‚̈ʒu‚ÅŽg‚í‚ê‚é
‚`‚m‚`Œ`ime, him, her, us, them‚È‚Çj‚Ƃ̋æ•Ê‚¾‚¯‚Å‚ ‚éB‚µ‚©‚àAŋ߂łÍAŽŸ‚Ì
—á‚̂悤‚É‚»‚Ì‹æ•Ê‚àˆê•”‰ö‚µ‚‚È‚Á‚Ä‚«‚Ä‚¢‚é‹C”z‚ª‚ ‚éB
6)a. Silly me!/*Silly I!
b. Silly I did that.
c. Silly me did that.
7) It's me.
8) Who do you like?
‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚Íu‚m0‚̈ʒu‚ÅŽg‚í‚ê‚éŒ`v‚ðuŽåŠivAu‚m1`3‚̈ʒu‚ÅŽg‚í‚ê‚é
Œ`v‚ðu–Ú“IŠiv‚ƌĂÔB
ø¢11-3-NT-(C)@m‚`‚m‚`{‚m ¨ •›Œ`‘Ô‘fHn
‚`‚m‚`{‚m ‚É‚æ‚Á‚͂܂ê‚é‚¢‚í‚ä‚élÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ÍA‚±‚Ì–{‚ł͂ ‚‚܂Ŏå
Œ`‘Ô‘f‚Ì‚m‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚í‚ê‚邪A‚Ç‚¿‚ç‚©‚ÆŒ¾‚¦‚Ε›Œ`‘Ô‘f‚ɋ߂¢‘¶Ý‚Å‚ ‚éB‚»‚Ì‚¢‚‚Â
‚©‚Ì——RB
(i)•p“x
Hofland&Johansson(1982)‚ÌLOB RANK LIST ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAI-my-me, we-our-us,
you-your, he-his-him, she-her, it-its, ‚Ì‚·‚ׂĂª Frequency Order ‚Ì‚P‚P‚PˆÊ‚Ü‚Å
‚É“ü‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAit (10010‰ñj‚Í‚P‚OˆÊAyour(853‰ñj‚ª‚P‚P‚PˆÊBˆê•ûA‚±‚ê
‚ç‚Í‘‚«Œ¾—t‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚Í salilent ‚Å‚àA˜b‚µŒ¾—t‚ł͖ڗ§‚½‚È‚¢‚±‚Æ‚ª‘½‚¢B‚»‚̈Ӗ¡‚Å
‚ÍŽåŒ`‘Ô‘f‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚æ‚è‚Í•›Œ`‘Ô‘f‚ɋ߂¢‘¶Ý‚Æ‚¢‚¦‚éB
(ii)ƒXƒgƒŒƒX‚̂Ȃ¢–Ú“IŠi‚ÌlÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ
Baker,C.L.(1989, p.196)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAunstressed pronouns ‚Í Verbs ‚©‚ç
separete ‚Å‚«‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤ƒ‹|ƒ‹‚ª‚ ‚邯‚¢‚¤B
1)a. Jane gave the book to Freddy.
b. Jane gave Freddy the book.
c. Jane gave it to Freddy.
d. *Jane gave Freddy it.
‚Ü‚½A‚m‚ª unstressed pronouns ‚Ìꇂ¾‚¯ shifted order ‚ª‚¾‚ß‚ÅA
stressed ‚ÌꇂÍOK‚Å‚ ‚邯‚¢‚¤B
2)a. We put the refrigerator back.
b. We put back the refrigerator.
c. We put it back.
d.*We put back it.
3)a. Janice called HIM up.
b. Janice called up HIM.
(iii)ŽåŠi‚ÌlÌ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚Í‹@”\ŒêH
Peters,A.M.(p.471) ‚ÍA"criticizable" ‚Æ’f‚í‚è‚È‚ª‚ç‚àAsignalling
head-of-phrase ‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAsubject pronoun ‚ð det, aux, prep ‚Ȃǂ̂¢‚í‚ä‚é
function words ‚Æ“¯—ñ‚Ɉµ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éB
‚Ü‚½A‚b‚f‚Å‚Íivan Hoek, pp.56ff)A߂̒†‚Å‚Í subject ‚Í primary
reference point ‚Å‚ ‚èA‚»‚Ì‘¼‚Ì nominals ‚ð‚»‚Ì domain ‚Ì’†‚ÉŽ‚ÂB direct
object ‚Í secondary reference point ‚Å‚ ‚è...‚±‚Ì conceptual path ‚Í nominals
ŠÔ‚¾‚¯‚łȂ higher-level clauses ‚©‚ç embedded ones‚Ö‚Æ‘±‚...B‚Ü‚½A
possessor ‚ª starting point ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚m‚o‚ðƒŠ|ƒhiground)‚·‚邿‚¤‚É subject ‚Í
clause‚ðƒŠ|ƒh‚·‚éB(p.65)
ø¢11-4-NT-(A)@m-self/-selvesŒ`n
¡¼Eó–ì(pp.28-30)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì1)`4)‚̂悤‚ÈAæsŽŒ‚ªÆ‰žŒ`‚̶‹N‚·
‚铯ˆê•¶“à‚ɂȂ‚Ăଗ§‚·‚鯉žŠÖŒW‚ÍŽ©—RƉž(free anaphora)‚ƌĂ΂ê‚éB
1) John finally realized that he was unpopular.
2) I spoke to John yesterday. He finally realized that Mary was
unpopular.
3)a. Although Mary's cat ate a hole in Fred's coat, it didn't bother
him.
b. When did Mary's cat eat a hole in Fred's coat?
I think it happened in New Year's Eve.[it=Mary's cat ate...]
4)a. My father wanted me to help Mary while John didn't
.
b. My father wanted me to help Mary. My brother did
, too.
[
= want me to help Mary]
‚»‚ê‚ɑ΂µAÄ‹A‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚⑊ŒÝ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚̂悤‚ÉæsŽŒ‚ªÆ‰žŒ`‚̶‹N‚·‚铯ˆê
•¶“à‚É‚ ‚éꇂɂµ‚©¬—§‚µ‚È‚¢ŠÖŒW‚ÍA‘©”›Æ‰ž(bound anaphora)‚ƌĂ΂ê‚éB
(cf.Halke 1973,Chomsky 1975)B‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉAChomsky, N.(1981,1986a)‚Ì’ñˆÄ‚·‚é‘©”›—
˜_(binding theory)‚Å‚ÍAƉžŒ`ianaphora)‚Æ‚¢‚¤Œê‚ð‘©”›Æ‰žŒ`‚ðŽw‚·ê‡‚ÉŒÀ‚Á‚Ä
Žg‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éB
‰pŒê‚ÌÄ‹A‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚É‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì‚ªŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚éBi¡¼Eó–ìAp.186)
5)a. John saw himself in the mirror.
b. John killed himself.
c. John was pleased when a picture of himself appeared in the
morning newspaper.
d. This book was written by John and myself.
e. John himself cooked supper.
f. John cooked supper himself.
g. John cooked supper by himself.
ø¢11-4-NT-(B)@m-selfŒ`‚ðŽg‚í‚È‚¢ê‡n
“¯ˆê•¶’†‚Å-selfŒ`‚ªŽg‚í‚ê‚È‚¢ƒP[ƒX‚Æ‚µ‚Ă͎Ÿ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éB
(i) -self Œ`‚ÍŽåŠi‚ł͎g‚í‚ê‚È‚¢B
1) *John thinks that himself is clever. (Borsley,R.D., p.175)
(ii) -self Œ`‚ÍŠ—LŠi‚ł͎g‚í‚ê‚È‚¢B
2) I saw it with my (own) eyes. (ˆÀˆäA1982, p.213)
(iii) ‹óŠÔ“IŠÖŒW‚ð‚ ‚ç‚í‚·Žž -selfŒ`‚ÍŽg‚í‚ê‚È‚¢i‚±‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚éj
icf.Jespersen, O. 1933:112, Quirk et al. 1972:211-213)B
3) She drew the box towards her. (ˆÀˆäA1982, ‚.212)
‹v–ì(p.67) ‚ÍA–¼ŽŒ‚ªusˆ×‚Ì’¼Ú‚̃^[ƒQƒbƒgidirect recipients or
targets of the actions) ‚Ìê‡‚É -selfŒ`‚ª‹N‚±‚邯‚¢‚¤ semantic constraints ‚ð
’ñˆÄ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAŽŸ‚Ì 4-a) ‚Å‚ÍAJohn ‚ÍŽ©•ªŽ©g‚ðƒ[ƒv‚Å‚µ‚΂Á‚Ä‚¢‚é
‚ªA4-b) ‚Å‚ÍAƒ[ƒv‚ÍJohn ‚Ìg‘Ì‚ÉG‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚È‚¢A‚Æ‚·‚éB
4)a. John strung the rope around himself.
b. John strung the rope around him.
‚½‚¾‚µA‘O’uŽŒ‚ª”äšg“I‚ȈӖ¡‚ðŽ‚ÂꇂɂÍA•K‚¸Ä‹A‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ª¶‹N‚µ‚È‚¯
‚ê‚΂Ȃç‚È‚¢BiQuirk et al.1985, p.360j
5) She was beside [*her/herself] with rage.
(iv) —˜ŠQ‚Ì—^Ši‚Å‚Í myself ‚ª me ‚ɂȂ邱‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚éB
6) I'm 118, and I'm staying that way until I find me a man.
iӻЯAp.56j
(v) •¡•¶’†‚Ì -selfŒ`‚͂Ȃ¢ (ˆÀˆä, 1982, p.214)
7)a. Mary told me that Jane washed herself(=Jane).
b. Mary told me that Jane washed her(=Mary).
‚·‚Ȃ킿A7-a) ‚É‚¨‚¯‚é herself‚ª‚Ç‚Ìæs–¼ŽŒ‚ðŽó‚¯‚é‚©‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ÍA‚±‚Ìê‡A
that߂̒†‚ÅŒvŽZ‚³‚ê‚é‚̂ł ‚Á‚ÄAthatß‚ð‰z‚¦‚½•¶‘S‘̂̒†‚ÅŒvŽZ‚³‚ê‚é‚̂ł͂È
‚¢B‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAŽŸ‚Ì8)‚Í”ñ•¶‚ƂȂéB
8) *Mary told me that John washed herself(=Mary).
‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉA ŽŸ‚Ì9-a)‚Æ9-b)‚ÍApersuade, promise‚ÌŒã‚Ì ‚m{to‚u Œ`‚ª‚Ç
‚Ì‚‚ç‚¢u•¶i‚rj‚Á‚Û‚¢v‚©‚ðŽ¦‚·—á‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‹»–¡[‚¢B
9)a. John persuaded Mary to defend [herself/*himself].
b. John promised Mary to defend [himself/*herself].
(Borsley, R.D., p.175)
ø¢11-5-NT-(A)@mone/it/so/each othern
ŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAone/it/so/each other‚Ȃǂ̎g‚¢•ª‚¯‚Íd—v‚Å‚ ‚éB
(i) <one>
one ‚ÍŠùo‰ÂŽZ–¼ŽŒ‚Ì‚`‚m‚`Œ`‚Æ‚µ‚ÄŽg‚í‚ê‚éB
1) I don't like this pen. Show me a better one.(=pen)
(ˆÀˆäA1982, p.222j
2) A:Have you seen a flying saucer?
B:No, I haven't seen [one/*it].
(ii) <each other vs them vs themselves>
¡¼Eó–ì(p.32)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA“¯ˆê•¶“à‚Å‚Q‚‚̖¼ŽŒ‹å‚ª“¯ˆêŽwަ“I‚É—p‚¢‚ç
‚ê‚éê‡A ...Ž©—RƉž‚ƂȂé‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ª¶‹N‚·‚éŠÂ‹«‚Æ‘©”›Æ‰ž‚ƂȂéÄ‹A‘ã–¼ŽŒA
‘ŠŒÝ‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚ª ¶‹N‚·‚éŠÂ‹«‚ÍAˆê”Ê“I‚É‚ÍA‘Š•â•ª•z(complementary distribution)
‚𬂷‚Æ‚¢‚¤Bicf.Huang 1983, Bouchard 1985)
3)a. They turned the arguments against [themselves/each other/*them].
b. They turned the friends against [*themselves/*each other/them].
c. They saw snakes near [*themselves/each other/them].
d. They carried some food with [*themselves/*each other/them].
(iii) <do so vs do it>
Huddleston & Pullum(p.1532)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAdo so ‚̓CƒfƒCƒIƒ€Ado it ‚Í
u‘¼“®«v‚ðŽ‚¿AƒCƒfƒCƒIƒ€‚łȂ¢B
4) When the tree fell, it [did so/*did it] with a loud crash.
ø¢11-5-NT-(B)@m
by ”‚Q or ”‚RHn
ŽŸ‚̂悤‚Èto‚ÍA(i)d•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹”‚Q‚ÌŒ‹‰ÊiANA+toV¨to)‚Æ‚àA(ii)d•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹
”‚R‚ÌŒ‹‰ÊitoV¨to+
)‚Æ‚àl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
1) You don't have to eat it if you don't want to. (]ìAp.328)
2) He persisted in interrupting me, though I asked him not to.
3) Will you come and see us one evening?/Yes, I'll be glad to.(ibid. p.329)
ø¢11-5-NT-(C)@m‚`‚m‚`Œ`‚Æì—pˆæ‚Ƃ̕iŽŒ•„‡n
–{•¶‚Ì—á•¶(27)‚ÅAthere ‚Íæs‚·‚é to Denver ‚ɑ΂·‚é‚`‚m‚`Œ`‚Ƃ͌¾‚¢
‚ª‚½‚¢B‚Þ‚µ‚ëAto Denver ¨ Denver ¨ in Denver ¨ there ‚Æ‚¢‚¤ˆÓޝ‚Ì—¬‚ê‚©‚ç
¶‚܂ꂽ‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éBŒ»ŽÀ‚É‚ÍA‚±‚̂悤‚Éæsì—pˆæ‚ÆÆ‰žŒ`‚Ì•¶–@ƒJƒeƒSƒŠ[
(•iŽŒj‚ɃYƒŒ‚ª¶‚¶‚邱‚Ƃ͂µ‚΂µ‚΂ ‚éB
1) She had expected to find the church empty, but three
women were there. (Huddleston & Pullum, p.1463)
2)A:Are they putting the price up?
B:I think so. (ibid, p.1536)
3) Employment in sevices of one kind or another may be
expected to increase as the towns approach maturity;
indeed, in the country generally the proportion of
people so employed is growing steadily. (ibid, p.1538)
ø¢11-6-NT-(A)@mŒã•ûƉž“Iicataphoricjni=backward anaphoraj
uŒã•ûƉž“Ivicataphoric) ‚ÍA‘å’ËE’†“‡(p.168)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAQuirk et al.
(1972, $$4.36, 10.63-70)“™‚Ì—pŒêB‘O•ûƉžianaphoricj‚ªŠùo‚Ì•\Œ»‚ðŽwަ‚·‚é‚Ì
‚ɑ΂µ‚ÄAŒã‘±‚Ì•\Œ»‚ðŽwަ‚·‚éBŽŸ‚̂悤‚Èit‚ª‚»‚Ì“TŒ^“I‚È—á‚Å‚ ‚éB
1)a. It's delicious, this coffee.(ˆÀˆäA1982, p.208)
b. This coffee is delicious.
‚Ü‚½AˆÀˆäi1982, pp.207ff)‚ÍAˆê”Ê“I‚É‚ÍA1-b)‚©‚ç1-a)‚ªì‚ç‚ê‚邯‚·
‚éB‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚Ì 2), 3) ‚Å‚ÍA
2)a. It pleases me to read the novel.
b. To read the novel pleases me.
3)a. It seems that John is ill in bed.
b.*That John is ill in bed seems.
2-b)‚©‚ç2-a)‚ÍoptionalA3-b)‚©‚ç3-a)‚Íobligatory‚ÌŠO’u•ÏŒ`iExtraposition
transformationj‚É‚æ‚éB
‚½‚¾‚µAit ‚ªŽg‚¦‚È‚¢ê‡‚âA•K‚¸ it ‚ðŽg‚¤ê‡‚à‚ ‚éB
4)a. Did you find out that the check was bad?
b.*Did you find it out that the check was bad?
5)a. I resent it that she did that.
b.*I resent that she did that.
‚»‚±‚ÅAŒã•ûƉž‚ÍA’P‚È‚é”CˆÓ‚Ì‘I‘ðŽˆ‚Å‚Í‚È‚A“Á’è‚̃‚ƒ`ƒx|ƒVƒ‡ƒ“‚É‚æ‚邯‚·‚é
•¶–@‰Æ‚à‚¢‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎABolinger, D.(1977, pp.66-71)‚ÍAã‚Ì 4) ‚â 5) ‚©‚çAuit
‚ÍŠùo‚ÌŽ–•¿‚ÉŒ¾‹y‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚邯‚«‚É—p‚¢‚ç‚ê‚év‚Æà–¾‚·‚éB
‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉAHuddleston and Pullum(p.1413)‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚É(i) right
dislocation ‚Æ (ii) extraposition ‚ð‹æ•Ê‚µ‚Ä’ñަ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚邪A‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA“¯‚¶Œã•û
Ɖž‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚ĂƂ炦‚éB
6)a. It annoyed us both, having to do the calculations by hand.
[right dislocation]
b. It annoyed us both that we had to do the calculations by hands.
[extraposition]
ø¢11-6-NT-(B)@m‹ts”‚Ribackward
jHn
‹ts”‚Qibackward ANA)‚Ìit‚Æ‘ÎÆ“I‚ÉA‹ts”‚R(backward
)‚Æ‚Å‚àŒ¾‚¦
‚éŒ`‚ª‚ ‚éB
1) The black
and the white dog are both large.
2) If you can
, send me a postcard when you arrive. (Swan, M. p.179)
3) With
or without sugar?
cf. With sugar or without
?
4) How much does it cost to go to
and come back from the beach?
5) You can
and should go.
‚¿‚Ȃ݂ÉAMcCawley,J.D.(1988, p.526)‚Í‚Q‚ˆÈã‚Ì•¶i‚rj‚ª and ‚É
‚æ‚Á‚ÂȂª‚ê‚½Žž‚ÌŠÈ—ª‰»(simplifying)‚Ì•û–@‚ðŽŸ‚Ì‚æ‚¤‚ɂ܂Ƃ߂Ă¢‚éB
(i)Gapping
6)a. Alice ordered turnips, Ed
artichokes, and Bernice
zucchini.
(ii)Stripping
6)b. Fred sent a nasty letter to the president, and
a bomb too.
(iii)Right node raising
6)c. Joan sells
, and Fred knows a man who repairs, washing machines.
r–ØEˆÀˆäip.579, p.1399, p.1278)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAgapping ‚Í Ross, J.R.(1967)‚ÌA
stripping ‚Í Hankamer-Sag(1976)‚ÌAright node raising ‚Í Postal, P.M.(1974)‚â
Bresnan, J.W. (1974)‚Ì—pŒê‚Å‚ ‚邯‚¢‚¤B‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA6-a), 6-b)‚Í”‚R‚ÌA6-c)‚Í
‹ts”‚R‚Ì—á‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚ƂɂȂéB