‘æIIIÍ@“®ŽŒ‚ÌŠg[ y‹³Žt—pƒm[ƒgz


‚k‚d‚r‚r‚n‚m@‚P‚Q@@‚uŠg[Žq{–@«}FMODican ‚È‚Çj

 ø¢12-1-NT-(A)@m–@(mood)‚Æ–@«(modality)n 
@@@@@–@(mood)‚Æ–@«(modality)‚Æ‚Í‚µ‚΂µ‚ά—p‚³‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚é‚悤‚Å‚ ‚éB–@‚à–@
«‚à‚Æ‚à‚É–{—ˆ‚Íu˜b‚µŽè‚ÌS“I‘Ô“xv‚ð•\‚·‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_‚Å‹¤’Ê“_‚ðŽ‚‚ªAŒ»Ý‚Å‚ÍA
‘½‚­‚Ìê‡A–@(mood)‚Í’¼à–@A ‰¼’è–@ A–½—ß–@‚Ì•Ê‚ð•\‚µA–@«(modality)‚͈ӎuA
‹–‰ÂA‹ÖŽ~A‹`–±‚È‚Ç‚Ì•Ê‚ð•\‚·B‚±‚±(Lesson 12)‚ňµ‚¤can,may ‚È‚Ç‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq‚ÍA
‚µ‚΂µ‚Îu–@•“®ŽŒv‚ƌĂ΂ê‚邪Aã‚Ì‹æ•Ê‚É]‚¦‚Îu–@«•“®ŽŒv‚ƌĂ΂ê‚é‚ׂ«
‚à‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB 
@@@@@‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉAˆÀˆäi1944, pp.499ff) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA–@«‚É‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì‚ª
‚ ‚éB
          a. ˆÓŽu                b. ‹–‰Â                 c. ‹ÖŽ~
          d. ‹­§E‹`–±          e. ‹`–±E•K—v«‚ÌŒ‡”@   f. ”\—Í
          g. ‰Â”\«              h. •s‰Â”\«             i. ”FŽ¯—l‘Ô“I•K‘R«
          j. ŠW‘R«EŠú‘Ò        k. Šè–]                 l. KŠµ
          m. dare

 ø¢12-1-NT-(B)@mˆêŽŸ•“®ŽŒ‚Æ“ñŽŸ•“®ŽŒn 
@@@@@“`““IŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAu•“®ŽŒv‚Æ‚¢‚¤•¶–@ƒJƒeƒSƒŠ|‚ðݒ肵ATwaddell,
W.F.(1961)‚É]‚¢AŽŸ‚̂悤‚È•ª—Þ‚ð‚·‚é‚à‚Ì‚ª‘½‚¢Bicf.ˆÀ“¡’åAp.169j
          1)a. ˆêŽŸ•“®ŽŒ:be, have, do
            b. “ñŽŸ•“®ŽŒ:can/could, may/might, ...
    @@@uˆêŽŸ•“®ŽŒv(primary auxiliaries)‚ÍAŒêœb“I‚ȈӖ¡‚ð‚Ù‚Æ‚ñ‚ÇŽ‚½‚È‚¢
‚Æ‚³‚êAu“ñŽŸ•“®ŽŒv(secondary auxiliaries)‚ÍAu–@•“®ŽŒv(modals)‚Æ‚àŒÄ‚΂êA
Žå‚Æ‚µ‚Ęb‚µŽè‚ÌS“I‘Ô“x‚ðŽ¦‚·‚à‚Ì‚Æ‚µ‚ÄA–¾Šm‚ÈŒêœb“IˆÓ–¡‚ð‚Æ‚Ç‚ß‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Æ‚³‚ê
‚éB‚Ü‚½AŒãŽÒ‚Í(i)-(e)s‚â-(e)d‚È‚Ç‚Ì‹üÜ‚ð‚à‚½‚È‚¢A(ii)*to can ‚̂悤‚ÉAto 
‚Æ‹¤‹N‚µ‚È‚¢A‚È‚Ç‚Ì“_‚Å‘OŽÒ‚É”ä‚× defective ‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éBicf. Wardhaugh, R.,
p.18;Long, R.B., p.177)
         ‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA1-a) ‚Ì be ‚Í‚uŠg[Žq be-ing, be-en ‚̈ꕔ‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAhave ‚à“¯
‚¶‚­‚uŠg[Žqhave-en‚̈ꕔ‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚¤B‚Ü‚½Ado ‚Í•¶i‚rj‚Éo‹­’²v‚̈Ӗ¡‚ð‰Á‚¦‚é
ƒIƒyƒŒ|ƒ^|ioperator)‚Ì DO ‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚¤Bˆê•ûA1-b) ‚Í‘S‚Äo–@«p‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq‚Æ‚µ
‚Ä•ª—Þ‚³‚ê‚éB

 ø¢12-1-NT-(C)@mExpand‚Ì’è‹`n 
         “®ŽŒi‚uj‚ªˆÓ–¡‚ÆŒ`‚Ìã‚Å‘å‚«‚­‚Ó‚­‚ç‚Þ‚±‚Æ‚ð"expand" ‚Æ‚¢‚¤•\Œ»‚ðŽg 
‚Á‚Ä•\Œ»‚·‚镶–@‰Æ‚Í‘½‚¢‚ªA‚»‚ꂼ‚êו”‚É‚¨‚¢‚ÄŽw‚·‚à‚Ì‚ªˆÙ‚È‚éB‚±‚ê‚ç‚Ì•¶–@ 
‰Æ‚Í‘å‚«‚­ŽŸ‚Ì‚R‚‚̃Oƒ‹|ƒv‚É•ª‚©‚ê‚éB 
         (i) be{‚uing Œ`‚ð expanded form ‚Æ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì
@@@@ ‰o‚ÍJespersen, O.i"expanded tenses" in MEG,1931/61,p.164j‚̂悤‚Å
‚ ‚邪AAllen, R.L.(p.114)‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì "Verb Clusters"‚ðݒ肵A
‚»‚Ì‚¤‚¿“Á‚ÉA5) ‚Ì be + ing-form ‚ð Expanded Verb-cluster ‚ƌĂñ‚Å‚¢‚éB
             1) TENSES  (Past&Present)
             2) WILL/SHALL  (Future Verb-clusters)  
             3) WILL/SHALL/CAN/MAY...(Modal Verb-clusters)
             4) HAVE + alpha  (Perfect Verb-clusters) 
             5) BE + ing-form   (Expanded Verb-clusters)
             6) BE + d-t-n form    (Passive Verb-clusters)
        (ii) do {@‚uŒ`‚ðexpanded form‚Æ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì
         Long, R.B.(p.177j‚ÍAdo + ‚u‚ÌŒ`‚Ì‚Ý‚ð expanded form ‚ƌĂñ‚Å‚¢‚éB
‚Ü‚½Acan{‚u ‚È‚Ç‚ÍA*cans {‚u‚È‚Ç‚Ì—p–@‚ª‚È‚¢‚Æ‚±‚ë‚©‚çAexpanded forms ‚É€‚¸
‚éŒ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ä defectives ‚ƌĂñ‚Å‚¢‚éB (cf.Wardhaugh, R. p.18)
       (iii) tense, modality, aspect(perf+prog) ‚ª“®ŽŒ‚ð"expand"‚·‚é‚Æ‚·‚é‚à‚Ì 
         Morenberg, M.(p.26) ‚ÍAtense, modality, aspect(perf+prog) ‚ðŠÜ‚Þ“®ŽŒ‹å
‚ð Expanding Verb Phrases ‚Ì€‚ňµ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚邪@pass‚Í”²‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚éB(cf.Chomsky, N. 
1957)
         ‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA(iii)‚ð‰ü—Ç‚µ‚ÄAŒÄ‰ž(AGR)A–@«(MOD)A‘Š(PERF/PROG)A‘Ô
(PASS)‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚ɑΉž‚·‚éu‚uŠg[Žqv‚ðÝ’è‚·‚éB‚±‚ê‚ç‚uŠg[Žq‚ÍA“®ŽŒi‚uj‚É
‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚̈Ӗ¡‚ð‰Á‚¦A‚Ó‚­‚ç‚Ü‚¹‚é‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB

 ø¢12-2-NT@m”\—Í/‹–‰Â‚Ìcann 
          ‚±‚̂悤‚Èu”\—ÍvAu‰Â”\«vAu‹–‰Âv‚Æ‚¢‚Á‚½“`““I‚È–@«•ª—Þ–@‚Í
•Ö—˜‚Å‚Í‚ ‚邪A‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚Ì‹«ŠEü‚ª‚µ‚΂µ‚΂͂Á‚«‚肹‚¸A•K‚¸‚µ‚à‰ÈŠw“I‚Æ‚ÍŒ¾‚¦
‚È‚¢BŽŸ‚Ì Lobeck, A.(p.119)‚̉ðà‚Æ—áŽQÆB 
             ... the sentences are ambiguous with respect to their different
@@@@@@ modalities.
         @    1) You may not get elected.  (possibility or permission)
               2) Can I have the car tonight?     (ability, permission)
               3) He should get home soon.     (prediction, obligation)
               4) You can have the car tonight, but may you is the question.
                               (can=permission/ability, may=permission)
@@@@@‚Ü‚½AWest, M. ‚̃ŠƒXƒg‚Å‚àA
        can     (i)(idea of capacity)  71%
 (10,552examples)    5) He can speak French.
                     6) Can I have one of these?
                (ii)(idea of possibility:hardly distinguishable from (i))  26%
                     7) It can't be true.
‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚悤‚ÉAu‹–‰Âv‚Íu”\—Ív‚Ì’†‚ÉŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚Ä‚¨‚èA‚µ‚©‚àu‰Â”\«v‚Æ‚Ì‹æ•Ê‚Í‚Þ
‚‚©‚µ‚¢(hardly distinguishable)‚Æ‚³‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éB
@@@@‚»‚±‚ÅA‚±‚ê‚ço–@«p‚Ì‘½‹`«‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄAŽ«‘‚â“`““I•¶–@‘‚Ì—§ê‚É–ž‘«‚¹
‚¸ŠjS“IˆÓ–¡icore meaningj‚ðݒ肵A‚»‚Ì‘¼‚Ì”h¶“IˆÓ–¡‚Í•¶–¬‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ķ‚¶‚é‚Æ‚·
‚é Perkins, M.R.(1982;1983j‚È‚Ç‚Ì—§ê‚ං܂ꂽBicf.r–ØEˆÀˆäAp.865)

 ø¢12-3-NT-(A)@m‚Q‚‚̎ž§n 
         @’†”ö‚Ù‚©ip.104j ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAu‚n‚dˆÈ—ˆ‰pŒê‚ÌŽž§‚ÍŒ»Ý‚ƉߋŽ‚Ì‚QŽí—Þ
‚¾‚¯v‚Å‚ ‚邪A“`““I‚ÈŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚Í–¢—ˆŒ`‚ðŠÜ‚Þ‚RŽž§A‚ ‚é‚¢‚ÍA‘Š‚È‚Ç‚ðŠÜ‚Þ
‚P‚QŽž§‚ð‚Æ‚é‚à‚Ì‚à‘½‚¢B(cf.Celce-Murcia&Larsen-Freeman, 1983, pp.61-66)
         @‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍAKaplan, J.P.(p.173) ‚Ìupassive tense, subjunctive tense, 
progressive tense ‚ÆŒ¾‚¤Œ¾‚¢•û‚̓iƒ“ƒZƒ“ƒXB passive ‚Í voice, subjunctive ‚Í 
mood, progressive ‚Í aspect ‚¾‚©‚çv ‚Æ‚¢‚¤—§ê‚ð‚Æ‚éB‚Ü‚½A–¢—ˆŒ`‚Ì will ‚É
‚‚¢‚ÄŒ¾‚¦‚ÎAPalmer, F.R.(p.111) ‚â McCallum-Bayliss, H.ip.92j‚ÌŒ¾‚¤‚悤‚ÉA
uwill ‚Í Tense Marker ‚Å‚Í‚È‚­AModal ‚Å‚ ‚év‚Æl‚¦‚éB(cf.9-2-NT)

 ø¢12-3-NT-(B)@mwill ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“xn 
@@@@@West, M. ‚̃ŠƒXƒg(pp.565-566)‚É‚æ‚é will ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“x‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì
‚Å‚ ‚éBi—ᕶ‚Í”²ˆj
   will     (i)(intend, be determined to, used with stress)   2%
 (16302ex.)        1) They will do it, although I tell them not to.
 Will,'ll,  (ii)(be in the habit of, ...)     3.1%
 won't,would       2) Give me anything that will hold water.
            (iiia)(choose to, be agreeable to)  8.3%
                   3) He said he would help me.
            (iiib)(the simple future tense)
                (referring to immediate action)   22.3%
                   4) Well, I'll say good-bye.
              (Meanings (iii-a) and (iii-b) are not easily distinguished.)
            (iv)(in conditional clauses)      57.1%  
                   5) If you go there, you will see him.
            (v)(hypothetical)         1.8%
                   6) Would you like to ...?

 ø¢12-3-NT-(C)@mŒ»ÝŒ`‚É‚æ‚é–¢—ˆ vs@will ‚É‚æ‚é–¢—ˆn 
           ˆê•û‚ÅŒ»ÝŒ`‚Í–¢—ˆ‚ÌŽ–•¿‚ð•\‚³‚È‚¢‚©‚ÆŒ¾‚¤‚Æ‚»‚¤‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢BˆÀˆäi1987,
 p.197j‚É‚æ‚é‚ÆAŽŸ‚̂悤‚ÉAŒ»ÝŒ`‚É‚æ‚é–¢—ˆi‚e\•¶j‚Íu’f’èvAwill ‚É‚æ‚é
–¢—ˆ‚Íu„‘ªi‚̈æ‚ðo‚È‚¢Ž–•¿jv‚Æ‚È‚éB
               1) The Yankees play the Red Sox tomorrow.@@i’f’èj
               2)*The Yankees play well tomorrow.
               3) The Yankees will play well tomorrow.@@@i„‘ªj

 ø¢12-3-NT-(D)@m—\’è‚Ìwilln 
@@@@@ŽŸ‚̂悤‚ÈA—\’è‚ð•\‚· will ‚ÍA‚¢‚í‚ä‚éˆÓŽu–¢—ˆ‚Æ’Pƒ–¢—ˆ‚Ì’†ŠÔ‚Ɉʒu
‚·‚é‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
             1) Mr.Turner will leave tomorrow.   (¬¼‚Ù‚©Ap.2062)
             2) I will do that now.  (Lobeck,A. p.120)

 ø¢12-4-NT-(A)@mmay ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“xn 
@@@@@West, M.(pp.299-300) ‚̃ŠƒXƒg‚É‚æ‚é may ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“x‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì‚Å
‚ ‚éB
 may,might       (i)(showing possibility)    56%
   (8831examples)      1) He may come, or he may not.
    in 500–œ—áj (ii)(showing permission)      6%
                       2) May I leave this with you?
                 (iii)(showing hope)            1%
                       3) May you live long!
                 (iv)(equivalent of a subjunctive)  12%
                       4) So that he may know in time.
                     (with words expressing fear or hope)  5%
                       5) Afraid that he might catch cold.

 ø¢12-4-NT-(B)@m‚`‚c vs EPDn 
@@@@@ˆê•”‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq MOD ‚ÍAˆÓ–¡‚Ìã‚Å•›ŽŒi‚`‚cj‚Æ‹æ•Ê‚ª‚‚©‚È‚¢B
              1)a. Possibly he is ill.  (Young, D.J., p.80) 
                b. He may be ill.
‚Ü‚½AˆÀˆäi1987, pp.205-206j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA‚±‚Ì‚Q‚‚Íu‚»‚ÌŠÔ‚É‹¦’²ŠÖŒW‚ª¬‚è—§‚Â
‚Æ‚«vA‹¤‹N‰Â”\‚Å‚ ‚éB
@@@@@@@2) Possibly, it may survive.
@@@@@‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚Ì—á‚©‚çA
@@@@@@@3)a. The toy may  {*certainly/*probably/possibly} be dangerous.
                b. The toy must  {certainly/*probably/*possibly} be dangerous.
may ‚Í possibly ‚ÆAmust ‚Í certainly ‚Æ‹¦’²ŠÖŒW‚ð‚‚­‚邱‚Æ‚ª•ª‚©‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
          ‘½•ªA‚Ç‚ÌŒ¾Œê‚Å‚à‚»‚¤‚¾‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚邪AˆÓ–¡“I‚Èu•s®‡v‚É‚Í‚«‚Ñ‚µ‚­
‚Æ‚àAud•¡v‚É‚ÍŠ°‘å‚Å‚ ‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎA‰pŒê‚ÌŽŸ‚Ì—á‚Å‚ÍAo‰ß‹Žp‚Æ‚¢‚¤î•ñ‚ª-ed
‚Æyesterday ‚Åd•¡‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB
@@@@@@@4) I worked hard yesterday.

 ø¢12-4-NT-(C)@m‰Â”\«‚Ì can ‚Æ mayn 
          McCallum-Bayliss, H. (p.14) ‚ÍAModals ‚ð ŽŸ‚̂悤‚È Probability ‚Ì
scale ‚Ì’†‚łƂ炦‚悤‚Æ‚·‚éB
           1)          b   NECESSITY  b   HIGH LIKELIHOOD  b POSSIBILITY
                       b              b                    b
             [+ground] b   (have to)  b  will              b can
                       b@@@@@@@b@@@@@@@@@@b
             [-ground] b         must b           shall    b         may
                       b              b                    b
         ‚±‚ê‚É‚æ‚é‚ÆAPOSSIBILITY ‚ð•\‚· can ‚â may ‚ÍA mustAwill ‚È‚Ç‚æ‚è
probability ’á‚­A‚±‚Ì‚Q‚Â‚ÌŠÔ‚Å‚Í can ‚Ì•û‚ªu˜_‹’vi+ground) ‚ª‚ ‚镪˜_—
“I‰Â”\«‚ðAmay ‚Ì•û‚ÍŽåŠÏ“I‰Â”\«i-ground)‚ð•\‚·•ªAŠmM“x‚ÍŽã‚¢B‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA
ŽŸ‚Ì 2-a), 2-b) ‚Å‚ÍA
             2)a. Anybody can make mistakes.
               b. He may make mistakes.@@ (Leech, G.N. p.69j
2-a) ‚ÍAu‚¾‚ê‚Å‚à ‚»‚¤‚¢‚¤‰Â”\«‚ª‚ ‚évA2-b) ‚ÍAu˜b‚µŽè‚ªA‚½‚Ô‚ñ‚»‚¤‚È
‚邾‚낤‚ÆŽv‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚év‚Æ‚¢‚¤ˆÓ–¡‚É‚È‚éB 
         ‚Ü‚½A¬¼‚Ù‚©(p.1043)‚Å‚ÍA might-may-could-can-should-ought to-would
-will- must ‚̇‚ÅŠmM“x‚Í‹­‚­‚È‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
@@@@ ‚Ü‚½AˆÀˆä(1987, p.200) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAcan ‚Æ may ‚̈Ⴂ‚Æ‚µ‚ÄA‚±‚ê‚ç‚Í‚Æ‚à
‚ɉ”\«‚ð•\‚·‚ªAí‚ÉŒð‘։”\‚Ȃ킯‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢B—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 3-a)`3-d) ‚É‚¨‚¢‚ÄA
             3)a. Careful, that gun may be loaded.  i`‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢j
               b. It is possible that the gun is loaded.
               c. Perhaps that gun is loaded.
               d. That gun can be loaded.i‚»‚Ìe‚Í’eŠÛ‚ð‘•‚Ä‚ñ‚Å‚«‚éó‘Ô‚É‚ ‚éj
3-a) ‚̉ºü•”‚ÍA’ÂqŠÉ˜a“Iiepistemicj‚ȉ”\«‚ð•\‚µA3-b)A3-c) ‚Æ“¯‹`‚Å‚ ‚邪A
3-d) ‚Í“¯‹`‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢B
@@@@@‚Ü‚½APalmer, F.R.(p.53) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎApossibility ‚Ìê‡Aproposition
i–½‘èj‚ª”ے肳‚ê‚é‚Æ‚«‚Ímay not(=It is possible that...not...)Amodality ‚ª”Û’è
‚³‚ê‚é‚Æ‚«‚Í can't(=It is not possible that....)‚ªŽg‚í‚ê‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
             4) You may not have met her.
             5) It sounds as though he can't be at Damion Sampson Hall any more.

 ø¢12-4-NT-(D)@m‹–‰Â‚Ì can ‚Æ mayn 
@@@@@can ‚Í impersonal ‚È‹–‰ÂBmay ‚͘bŽÒ‚É‚æ‚é‹–‰ÂB‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAŽŸ‚Ì—á‚ÅA
1-a) ‚É‘±‚¯‚Ä There's no notice "No Smoking." ‚ÆŒ¾‚¦‚邪A1-b)‚É‘±‚¯‚Ä‚ÍŒ¾‚¦‚È‚¢B
             1)a. You can smoke in this room.
               b. You may smoke in this room.
                    (cf.12-11-NT-(E), must vs have to)

 ø¢12-5-NT-(A)@mmust ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“xn 
@@@@@West, M. ‚̃ŠƒXƒg(pp.316-317)‚É‚æ‚é must ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“x‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à‚Ì
‚Å‚ ‚éB
   must     (i)(compulsion, not always distinguishable from (2))  86%
 (3946ex.)         1) I must go.
            (ii)(certainty)       12%
                   2) He must be there by now.

 ø¢12-5-NT-(B)@mmust ‚ÌžB–†«n 
@@@@@ŽŸ‚Ì 1) ‚ÍžB–†‚Å‚ ‚éBmust ‚É‚ÍAu`‚É‚¿‚ª‚¢‚È‚¢v‚Æ‚¢‚¤ˆÓ–¡‚Ì”FŽ¯“I
(epistemic) —p–@‚Æu`‚Å‚È‚¯‚ê‚΂Ȃç‚È‚¢v‚Æ‚¢‚¤ˆÓ–¡‚Ì”ñ”FŽ¯“I (non-epistemic)
—p–@‚ª‚ ‚é‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB
@@@@    1) John must be careful.  iˆÀˆäA1987, p.200)
          must ‚ÉŒÀ‚炸Ao–@«p‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq‚É‚Í•¡”‚̈Ӗ¡‚ðŽ‚‚à‚Ì‚ª‘½‚¢B
               2) John may come tomorrow. (Palmer, F.R., p.38/Ross, J.B., p.89)
                        (cf. 12-7-NT-(B), Ross ‚Ì‚Q‚‚Ì\‘¢ˆÄ)
‚±‚̂悤‚Èo–@«p‚Ì•“®ŽŒi‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚Ío–@«p‚Ì‚uŠg[Žqj‚Ì‘½‹`«‚ª have to 
‚È‚Ç‚Ì‚¢‚í‚ä‚é semi-auxiliaries(cf.Quirk, et al., 1985, p.137A‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚Ío–@
«p‚Ì€‚uŠg[Žqj‚ð¶‚Ýo‚µ‚½‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éicf.’†”öEŽ™”nAp.83)B

 ø¢12-6-NT-(A)@mshall/should ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“xn 
@@@@@West, M.(p.447) ‚̃ŠƒXƒg‚É‚æ‚é shall/should ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Æ•p“x‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È‚à
‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB
   shall   (i)(simple future)                         17%
(7064ex.)          1) I shall arrive at 4 p.m.
           (ii)(compulsion, promise)                   9%
                   2) You shall do as I order!
           (iii)(question, or offer of service)        5%
                   3) Shall I get you another cup of tea?
 should    (i)(hypothetical and conditional)          11%
                   4) I should be glad to do so - if I could.
           (ii)(=shall or will, in reported speech)   19%
                   5) I said I should(would) be there early.
           (iii)(obligation)                          23%
                   6) You should be more careful.
           (iv)(probability)                           4%
                   7) They should be here soon.

 ø¢12-6-NT-(B)@mmusti‹­‚¢ŠmMj‚Æ shouldiŽã‚¢ŠmMjn 
@@@@@Swan, M.(1980/1995, pp.496-497)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŠmM‚ð•\‚·must ‚ÍAgreat 
confidence ‚ð•\‚µAshould/ought to ‚æ‚è‚à‹­‚­‚æ‚èŠmM“I‚Å‚ ‚éB‚Ü‚½AˆÀ“¡’å
ip.203)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŠmM«‚Ì“x‡‚¢‚Å should < must(more certain)‚Å‚ ‚邾‚¯‚Å‚È‚­
‹`–±‚Ì‹­“x‚Ì“x‡‚¢‚Å‚à should < must ‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤BSwan, M.(p.496)‚ÌŽŸ‚̗ᕶ
‚Ɖðà‚Í‚±‚ê‚ðŽxŽ‚·‚éB
              1)a. The doctor said I must give up smoking.
                b. You really ought to give up smoking.
1-a)‚Å‚ÍAan order which is likely to be obeyed ‚ð•\‚µA1-b)‚Å‚ÍAa piece of
advice which may or may not be followed ‚ð•\‚·B‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAmust ‚Ì‘ã‚í‚è‚É 
should ‚ðŽg‚¤‚Æ more polite ‚Æ‚È‚éB
              2) Applications should be sent by 31 January.

 ø¢12-6-NT-(C)@mshouldiŽåŠÏ“Ij‚Æ ought toi‹qŠÏ“Ijn 
@@@@@ˆê”Ê“I‚ÉAshould‚ÍŽ©•ªŽ©g‚ÌŽåŠÏ“I‚Ȉӌ©‚ðq‚ׂ邱‚ƂɂȂ邪Aought 
to ‚͎Љï“I‹K”Í‚âŽÐ‰ï“I펯‚É‚æ‚é”»’f‚ð•\‚µA‹qŠÏ“I‚È—Í‚ðŽ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éB
—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 1-a) ‚Ì‘ã‚í‚è‚ÉA
              1)a. It is natural that he should be tired. iˆÀˆäA1982, p.248) 
                b. It is natural that he is tired.
should ‚Ì‚È‚¢ ‚P|bj‚ÌŒ`‚ð—p‚¢‚ê‚Î Au”Þ‚ª”æ‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Ì‚Í“–‘R‚Ì‚±‚Æ‚Å‚ ‚év‚Æ‚¢
‚¤Ž–ŽÀ‚ð’[“I‚Éq‚ׂé‹qŠÏ“I•\Œ»‚Æ‚È‚éB‚±‚ê‚ɑ΂µ, should ‚Ì‚ ‚é 1-a) ‚ÌŒ`‚Í ˜bŽÒ
‚ÌŠ´î“IŽåŠÏ–Ê‚ª‹­‚­o‚邱‚Æ‚É‚È‚éB
@@@@@‚à‚Á‚Æ‚àAˆê•û‚ÅAshould ‚ÍAŒöŽ®‚ÌŒfŽ¦‚â’ˆÓ‘‚«‚È‚Ç‚É—p‚¢‚ç‚ê‚邪A
ought to ‚É‚±‚Ì—p–@‚Í‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤Ž–ŽÀ‚à‚ ‚éBi–ÈŠÑ‚Ù‚©Ap.59)
          ‚È‚¨A‰Â”\«(possibility)‚Ì should/ought to ‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄŒ¾‚¦‚ÎA
              2) might < may < could < can < should < ought to < would < will 
                 < must
‚̇‚ʼnE‚Ös‚­‚Ù‚ÇŠmM“x‚ª‹­‚­‚È‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B(¬¼‚Ù‚©Ap.1043)

 ø¢12-7-NT@m”FŽ¯“I—p–@(epistemic use)‚Æ”ñ”FŽ¯“I—p–@(non-epistemic 
@@@@@@ use)n 
@@@@@(i) ˆÀ“¡’åipp.171ff)‚Ì•ªÍ
@@@@@–@•“®ŽŒ‚É‚Í‚Q‚‚̗p–@‚ª”F‚ß‚ç‚ê‚éB”FŽ¯“I—p–@(epistemic use)‚Æ”ñ”FŽ¯ 
“I—p–@(non-epistemic use)‚Å‚ ‚éBi‹r’Froot/epistemic(Hofman,1966), modulation/
modality(Halliday, 1970), cognitive/epistemic(Ota,1972), primary/secondary(Close,
1975)‚Æ‚àj
              1)a. We must be careful.i`‚µ‚È‚¯‚ê‚΂Ȃç‚È‚¢jm”ñ”FŽ¯“In
                b. John must be careless.i`‚ɈႢ‚È‚¢jm”FŽ¯“In
         ˆÀ“¡’å(p.202)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚Ì–@«‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚É”ñ”FŽ¯“I‚È‚à‚Ì‚Æ”F
Ž¯“I‚È‚à‚Ì‚Æ‚É•ª‚¯‚ç‚ê‚éB
             ”ñ”FŽ¯“I                  ”FŽ¯“I 
 Can         ”\—Í(ability)             ‰Â”\«(possibility)
             s“®‚ÌŽ©—R(freedom to act)
 May         ‹–‰Â(permission)          ‰Â”\«(possibility)
 Must        ‹­§(compulsion)          ˜_—“I•K‘R«(logical necessity)
 Have to     ‹­§(compulsion)          ˜_—“I•K‘R«(logical necessity)
 Ought to    ‹`–±(duty)                ŠW‘R«(probability)
 Will        ˆÓŽu(volition)            —\Œ¾(prediction)
             K«(habitualness)
 Shall       ‘©”›(obligation)          ¬AŠmŽÀ«(certainty of fulfilment)
 Need        •K—v(necessity)
 Dare        ‘å’_‚³(boldness)
‚»‚µ‚ÄA”ñ”FŽ¯“I•“®ŽŒ‚ÍŽåŒêŽwŒü“I(subject-oriented)‚ÅA”FŽ¯“I•“®ŽŒ‚ÍAu˜b‚µ
Žèv‚̸’è‚ð•\‚·“_‚Řb‚µŽèŽwŒü“I(speaker-oriented)‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éBicf.Ota,1972:
43)‚½‚¾‚µAr–ØEˆÀˆäip.865)‚É‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È”ñ”FŽ¯“I—p–@‚Å‚ ‚è‚È‚ª‚ç speaker-
oriented ‚Å‚ ‚éu‹–‰Âv‚âu‹`–±v‚̗Ⴊ‚ ‚éB
              2) You may go home.i‰Æ‚É‹A‚Á‚Ä‚æ‚낵‚¢ji‹–‰Âj
              3) You must go home.  i‹`–±j
              4) You should go home.@i‹`–±j
ã‚̂悤‚ÉAŽåŒê‚ª you ‚Å‚ ‚éê‡A‹–‰Â‚â‹`–±‚Í subject-oriented ‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ“¯Žž‚É
speaker-oriented ‚É‚È‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚Å‚ ‚낤B
         (ii) Palmer, F.R.‚Ì•ªÍ
          Palmer, F.R.(1979, pp.41ff) ‚ÍA–@«(modality)‚ðŽŸ‚Ì‚æ‚¤‚È‚R‚‚̃Oƒ‹[
ƒv‚É•ª‚¯A
             A. Epistemic modalityF˜b‚µŽè‚Ì„—Êi‰Â”\«E„‘ªj‚ð•\‚·
             B. Deontic modalityF‹–‰ÂA‹`–±‚ð•\‚·
             C. Dynamic modalityFŽ–•¿‚̉”\«E•K—v«AŽåŒê‚Ì“Á«i”\—Í‚È‚Çj‚ð
                                  •\‚·
ŽŸ‚̂悤‚ȗᕶi”²ˆj‚ð‚ ‚°‚Ä‚¢‚éB
   A. Epistemic modality
     a)  MAY for possibility(p.43,=It is possible that...)
              5) You may not like the idea of it, but let me explain.  (p.42)
              6) He may go to London every day.
     b)  MUST for necessity(p.43, =It is necessary that...‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚æ‚è‚ÍA=The 
                   only possible conclusion is that...)
              7) She is a bridesmaid and she must be all excitement at the 
                 moment.
              8) It must rain tomorrow.      (p.44)
     c)  WILL for probability(confidence)
              9) The French will be on holiday today.   (p.47)
             10) John will be in his office.
     d)  SHOULD for necessity(reasonable conclusion)
             11) You should be meeting those later on this afternoon.  (p.49)
             12) There's no reason why it should be so surprising.
‚½‚¾‚µA12)‚Ì should ‚ÍA‚Í epistemic‚Æ‚ànon-epistemic‚Æ‚à‚Æ‚ê‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
   B. Deontic modality
     a)  MAY for permission
             13) If you want to recall the doctor, you may do so.      (p.59)
     b)  MUST for necessity
             14) I've been telling Peter, as I've been telling several people,
                 you know, 'You must get into permanent jobs', and I've been 
                 urging Peter ...@   (p.61)
   C. Dynamic modality
   C-1  neutral dynamic modality
     a)  CAN for'possibility'
             15) Who knows?  It can go either way.                  (p.71)
     b)  MUST for '(neutral) necessity'
             16) Why must I put up with such enraging conditions?   (p.91)
                        (neutral necessity ‚ÌPSTŒ`‚Í had to, p.97)
   C-2  subject oriented modality
     a)  CAN for ability 
             17) They can't speak a word of English, of course, not a   (p.73)
                 word, but, you know, they can say what they like.
     b)  WILL for volition, power, and habit
             18) But she loves him and she won't leave him.          (p.109)
             19) You know that certain drugs will improve the        (p.110)
                 condition.
     c)  WILL for future
             20) I hope I won't be too late, though.  (p.112) 
       (iii) ’†”öEŽ™”n‚Ì•ªÍ 
@@@@@’†”öEŽ™”n (p.78)i—vŽ|j‚Å‚ÍA–@•“®ŽŒ‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚É•ª—Þ‚³‚êA
     @@@@@–@•“®ŽŒ ¨ ”FŽ¯“IˆÓ–¡(epistemic) ¨ speaker-oriented
                   @@ ‹`–±“IˆÓ–¡(deontic)   ¨ subject-oriented

—ðŽj“I‚È—¬‚ê‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È“Á’¥‚ª‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
         (a) –{“®ŽŒ‚©‚ç•“®ŽŒ‚Ö
           @@@shall,will,may,can,must‚ÍA‚»‚ꂼ‚ꌳ‚Íscullan,willan,magan,
@@@@@@@cunnan,motan‚̉ߋŽŒ`‚Å‚ ‚éB(p.179)
         (b) ‹`–±“IˆÓ–¡‚©‚ç”FŽ¯“IˆÓ–¡‚Ö
@@@@@@@@ Œ³—ˆA–@•“®ŽŒ‚ÍAŽåŒê‚ªŠÖ—^‚·‚é‹`–±“IˆÓ–¡‚ð•\‚µAŽž‘ã‚ÌŒo‰ß
@@@@@@ ‚Æ‚Æ‚à‚Éu˜bŽÒv‚ªŠÖ—^‚·‚é”FŽ¯“IˆÓ–¡‚ð”­“W‚³‚¹‚éŒXŒü‚ª‚ ‚éB(p.81)
@@@@(iv) Ross, J.R.‚Ì•ªÍ
@@@@@‚Ü‚½ARoss, J.R.(1969, p.89j‚ÍAepistemic modals ‚Æ deontic modals ‚Ì
ª–{“I‚ȈႢ‚ÍA‘OŽÒ‚ª intransitive ‚Å‚ ‚é‚̂ɑ΂µAŒãŽÒ‚Ítransitive ‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚µA
—Ⴆ‚ÎJohn may come tomorrow. ‚Ì‚Q‚‚̓ǂ݂̂¤‚¿u`‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢v‚ð•\‚·
epistemic —p–@‚Í 21) ‚̂悤‚ÉAu`‚µ‚Ä‚æ‚¢v‚ð•\‚· deontic —p–@‚Í 22) ‚̂悤‚É
•\‚³‚ê‚é‚Æ‚·‚é 
   21)      ‚r                22)     ‚r@@@@@icf.Palmer, F.R., p.37)
         ^    _                  ^    _
       NP       VP               NP       VP
       b       b               b     ^   _
       ‚r       ‚u               b   ‚u      NP
John come t.    may              b   b      b
                                 b   b      ‚r
                                 I   may   John come tomorrow
@@@@(v) ’†‰E‚Ì•ªÍ
@@@@@Modality ‚ð(i)ŠK‘w“I‚ÉA(ii)discourse‚Ì’†‚ÅAŽæ‚舵‚Á‚½‚à‚Ì‚Æ‚µ‚Ä’†‰E‚Ì
•ªÍ‚ª‚ ‚éB‚»‚ê‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎATotal Proposition  ‚Éobligatory ‚È S-MOD ‚ª‰Á‚¦‚ç‚ê‚Ä
 Meaning of Construction ‚Æ‚È‚èA‚³‚ç‚É optional ‚È D-MOD ‚ª‰Á‚¦‚炦‚ê‚Ä Meaning
 of Utterance ‚É‚È‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤BŽŸ‚̂悤‚ÉB
   23)          ‚li‚rj2                     <Meaning of Utterance>
               ^    _
         D-MOD      ‚li‚rj1                 <Meaning of Construction>
        (Discourse ^    _
         M.)   S-MOD       PROP               <Total Proposition>
            (Sentence M.)

 ø¢12-9-NT-(A)@mPRS/PST +  MOD(non-epistemic)@vs@PRS/*PST + 
@@@@@@@@ MOD(epistemic)n 
         o–@«p‚Ì‚uŠg[ŽqiMODj‚Ì‚¤‚¿A”ñ”FŽ¯“Iinon-epistemicj—p–@‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚É
‚Í PRSŒ`‚ÆPSTŒ`‚ª‚ ‚邪A”FŽ¯“Iiepistemicj—p–@‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚É‚Í PRSŒ`‚Ì‚Ý‚Å PSTŒ`‚Í 
‚È‚¢‚Æ‚·‚闧ꂪˆê”Ê“I‚Å‚ ‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAPalmer, F.R.(p.50)‚Å‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚Éq‚ׂç‚ê
‚Ä‚¢‚éB
            Generally the modality is in the present only, because the judgments
          are made in the act of speaking, ... The modal verbs are not normally
          used, therefore, in past tense forms to refer to past judgments.
@@@@@‚Ü‚½AYoung(pp.83ff)‚ÍAmodals ‚ðsubject modal@‚Æ object modal ‚Ì‚Q‚Â
‚É•ª‚¯Asubjective modal ‚É ‰ß‹Ž(PST)Œ`‚Í‚È‚¢‚Æ‚·‚éB‚Ü‚½AˆÀ“¡’åip.215)‚ÍA”FŽ¯
“I–@•“®ŽŒ‚Íí‚ÉŒ»ÝŽž‚ðŽwŽ¦‚·‚é‚̂ɑ΂µ‚ÄA”ñ”FŽ¯“I—p–@‚ÍAŒ»ÝŽž‚ðŽwŽ¦‚·‚邱‚Æ
‚à‰ß‹ŽŽž‚ðŽwŽ¦‚·‚邱‚Æ‚à‚Å‚«‚é‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB
               1)a. * I asked him, and he would come. ƒ—\Œ¾„
                 b.   I asked him, but he wouldn't come.ƒˆÓŽu„
               2)a. * It could rain last night.ƒ‰Â”\«„
                 b.   I could hardly sleep last night.ƒs“®‚ÌŽ©—R„
‚‚܂èA‰ÈŠw•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚É‚Ü‚Æ‚ß‚ç‚ê‚éB
               3)a. PRS/PST  +  MOD(non-epistemic)
                 b. PRS/*PST +  MOD(epistemic)

 ø¢12-9-NT-(B)@mMOD(epistemic){have-en@vs@*MOD(non-epistmic){
@@@@@@@@ have-enn 
         o–@«p‚Ì‚uŠg[ŽqiMODj‚Ì‚¤‚¿APSTŒ`‚ðŽ‚”ñ”FŽ¯“Iinon-epistemicj
—p–@‚Ì‚à‚͈̂ê”Ê‚É have-en ‚Æ‹¤‹N‚µ‚È‚¢‚ªA
               1) *You may/can/must have come yesterday.iˆÀ“¡’åAp.216)
PSTŒ`‚ðŽ‚½‚È‚¢”FŽ¯“Iiepistemicj—p–@‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚ÍA‰ß‹Ž‚ÌŽ–•¿‚ɑ΂·‚é”­˜bŽž‚É‚¨‚¯‚é
˜b‚µŽè‚̃Rƒƒ“ƒg‚ð•\‚·‚Æ‚«‚É‚Í have-en ‚Æ‹¤‹N‚·‚éBi‘Š•â•ª•z‚ÌŠÖŒWj
       @@@  2) John may/must/would/ought to/cannot have left yesterday.(p.215)
‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉA2) ‚Ìʼn‚̗ᕶ‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚Ƀpƒ‰ƒtƒŒ|ƒY‚Å‚«‚éB
               3) It is possible that John left yesterday.
   @@@Quirk et al. (1985, p.235) ‚É‚àA have-en, be-ing ‚Íu”\—Íviability) A
u‹–‰Âvipermission)AuˆÓŽuvivolition) ‚ð•\‚· non-epistemic modals ‚Æ
‚Í‹¤‹N‚µ‚È‚¢‚ªAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È epistemic modals ‚Æ‚Í‹¤‹N‚·‚é‚Æ‚ ‚éB
               4) He may/might have missed the train.     (possibility)
               5) She can't/couldn't be swimming all day.
               6) He must have left his umbrella on the bus.(necessity)
               7) You must be dreaming.   
               8) The guests will/would have arrived by that time.(prediciton)
               9) Hussein will/would still be reading his paper.
‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉAQuirk et al.(ibid.)‚ÍA'obligation' ‚ð•\‚· should ‚ªAperfective ‚â 
progressive ‚Æ‹¤‹N‚·‚鎞‚É‚Í”ñŒ»ŽÀicounterfactual implication, nonfulfilment of
the obligation)‚ð•\‚·‚Æ‚µ‚ÄŽŸ‚Ì—á‚ð‚ ‚°‚Ä‚¢‚éB
              10)  I ought to be working now.  [...but I'm not.](counterfactual)
              11)  She shouldn't have left him. [...but she did.]

 ø¢12-9-NT-(C)@mPST +  MOD(epistemic) + ‚u == MOD(epistemic) + 
@@@@@@@@ have-en + ‚un 
         ‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA¬“ciãApp.110ffj‚â Givon, T.ip.174j‚É‚È‚ç‚¢AMOD
(epistemic) + have + ‚uen Œ`‚ðˆêŽí‚Ì PSTŒ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉʒu‚¯‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎA¬“c‚ÍA
ŽŸ‚̉ºü•”‚ð‚»‚ê‚¼‚ê should, must, may ‚Ìu‰ß‹ŽŒ`v‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
         1) I should have studied last night.(p.110)
         2) She must have been sick. (p.130)
         3)a.  She may have been sick.
           b. =She might have been sick.
           c. =She could have been sick.
‚Ü‚½AGivon, T.(p.174) ‚ÍA‚²‚­Å‹ß‚Ì—ðŽj“I•Ï‰»ifairly recent historical 
development) ‚É‚æ‚èAŽŸ‚̂悤‚Ȍ¢Œ»Ý|‰ß‹ŽŒ`‚̃yƒAiolder present-past 
pairings)‚©‚çA
         4)     present form               past form
              a. can                        could
              b. shall                      should
              c. will                       would
              d. may                        might
Å‹ß‚Å‚ÍAmodals with the auxiliary "have" ‚ª a sense of 'past' ‚ð•\‚·‚悤‚É‚È‚Á
‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
         5)     present form               past form
              a. She could do it.           She could have done it.
              b. She may do it.             She may have done it.
              c. She must do it.            She must have done it.
              d. She might do it.           She might have done it.
              d. She will do it.            She will have done it. 
              f. She would do it.           She would have done it.
              g. She should do it.          She should have done it.
5) ‚̂悤‚ÈV‚µ‚¢"past forms" ‚ÍAcould, would, might, should, must(<motan), 
ought (<owe)  ‚È‚Ç‚ª‚à‚Ƃ͉ߋŽŒ`(cf.Young, D.J., p.83)‚ÅA‚±‚êˆÈãu‰ß‹Žv‚É
‚·‚邱‚Æ‚ª‚Å‚«‚È‚©‚Á‚½A‚Æ‚¢‚¤Ž–‚ ‚Á‚½‚Ì‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢B
@@@@@‚©‚­‚µ‚ÄA‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA
@@@@@@@6) PST +  MOD(epistemic) + ‚u == MOD(epistemic) + have-en + ‚u
‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚É‚·‚邪A‚±‚ê‚É‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚È–â‘è“_(i)`(iv)‚ª‚ ‚éB
@@@@@(i) ‰ÈŠw•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAMOD(epistemic)‚ÉPSTŒ`‚ª‘¶Ý‚·‚邱‚ÆŽ©‘Ì‚ª”F‚ß‚ç‚ê
‚È‚¢B–{—ˆAMOD(epistemic)‚ÍAu”­˜bŽž‚É‚¨‚¯‚é˜b‚µŽè‚Ì•]Œ¾viˆÀ“¡’åAp.215)‚ð
•\‚·‚à‚Ì‚¾‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 7-a) ‚ð—á‚É‚Æ‚ê‚ÎA
              7)a.  He must have left home a moment ago.
                b.  It is certain that he left home a moment ago.
7-a) ‚ɑ΂µ ŠT—ª“I‚ȃpƒ‰ƒtƒŒ-ƒY‚ð—^‚¦‚é‚Æ‚·‚ê‚ÎA 7-b) ‚Æ‚È‚éB‚±‚ê‚ðu`‚µ‚½‚É
‚¿‚ª‚¢‚È‚©‚Á‚½v ‚Æ‚·‚é‚ÆŒë‚è‚Æ‚È‚éBiˆÀˆäA1982, p.250)
@@@@@(ii) MOD(epistemic)‚Å‚ ‚è‚È‚ª‚çAhave ‚uenŒ`‚É‚È‚ç‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚âA‹t‚ÉA
MOD(non-epistemic)‚Å‚ ‚è‚È‚ª‚çhave ‚uenŒ`‚É‚È‚é‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éB
    A. [MOD(epistemicj‚Å‚ ‚è‚È‚ª‚ç have ‚uenŒ`‚Æ‚È‚ç‚È‚¢‚à‚Ìn
         ¬¼‚Ù‚©(p.1063)‚É‚ÍA‰Â”\«E„—Ê(‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢)‚ð•\‚·may‚̉ߋŽŒ`‚Æ‚µ‚Ä
ŽŸ‚Ì 8) ‚â 9-a) ‚̗Ⴊ‚ ‚èA
             8) (‚Ü‚ê) In my youth, wild ponies might still be found there.
             9)a.  Do you think he might have purposely disappeared?     
                   (=Do you think that it was possible that he had purposely 
                     disappeared?)
                     [‰ß‹Ž‚É‚»‚̉”\«‚ª‚ ‚Á‚½‚ªŽÀÛ‚É‚ÍŽÀŒ»‚µ‚È‚©‚Á‚½ê‡n
               b.  He may have had an accident.
                   (=It is possible that he (has) had an accident.)
                     [‰ß‹Ž‚ɂ‚¢‚Ä‚Ì„—Ê‚ÅAŽÀÛ‚Ç‚¤‚¾‚Á‚½‚©‚Í•s–¾n
‚Ü‚½AŠÔÚ˜b–@‚Ì”í“`’B•”‚Å‚ÍAMOD(epistemic)‚̉ߋŽŒ`‚Í have ‚uen Œ`‚Æ‚È‚ç‚È‚¢B
(r–ØEˆÀˆäAp.1017)
            10) He said he would be using the car himself on the 24th.
‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚Ì 11-b) ‚ÍAepistemic„—ʂ̉ߋŽŒ`‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB
            11)a. She will be eighty now.
               b. She would be eighty when she died.
     B. [MOD(non-epistemic)‚Å have ‚uen Œ`‚Æ‚È‚é‚à‚Ì]
@@@@@ˆê•ûA‹`–±‚Ì should ‚ÍA’è‹`ã non-epistemic ‚Æ•ª—Þ‚³‚ê‚邪A‚»‚Ì 
PST Œ`‚Í should have ‚uen Œ`‚Æ‚È‚éB
            12) You should/ought to have gone there yesterday. (ˆÀ“¡’åAp.215)
‚±‚ê‚ÍA‚»‚à‚»‚à should ‚ª„‘ªiepistemic)‚Æ‹`–±(non-epistemic)‚Æ‚ÌŠÔ‚Å‚ ‚¢‚Ü‚¢
‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤Ž–ŽÀ‚É—R—ˆ‚·‚é‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚éB
          should ‚Ì‚ ‚¢‚Ü‚¢‚³‚ɂ‚¢‚Ä‚ÍAde Chene(pp.42-43)‚ðŽQÆB
        @@13)a. He should call her today.   („‘ªE‹`–±j
        @@   b. He should have called her by now.  
                @@@i`‚µ‚½‚¾‚낤[„‘ªj
        @@@@@@@i`‚·‚ׂ«‚¾‚Á‚½[‹`–±j
@@@@@(iii) MOD(epistemic) + have-en + ‚uŒ`‚ªo‰ß‹Žp‚ð•\‚³‚¸AoŠ®—¹p‚ð•\
‚·ê‡‚ª‚ ‚éBŽŸ‚Ì 14) ‚Æ15) ‚Å‚ÍAhave-en ‚ªo‰ß‹Žp‚ð•\‚·‚©oŠ®—¹p‚ð•\‚·‚©‚ 
‚¢‚Ü‚¢‚Å‚ ‚éB
            14) I reckon that must have hurt Cooper.   (Palmer, F.R.  p.51)
@@@      15) By next week, they will have completed their contract.
@@@@@‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚Ì16-a)‚Å‚Íhave-en‚ªŒ»ÝŠ®—¹‘Š‚ÉA16-b)‚ł͉ߋŽŠ®—¹‚ɑΉž‚µ‚Ä
‚¢‚éB
        @@16)a. John may have left already.[=It is possible that John has 
                  left...]
               b. John may have left before you came.[=It is possible that John 
                  had left before you came.]iˆÀ“¡’åAp.215)
‚½‚¾‚µA‚±‚ê‚ç‚ÍAQuirk et al.(p.190)‚ÌANTERIOR TIME‚Æ‚¢‚¤ƒRƒ“ƒZƒvƒg‚ðŽg‚¦‚Îà–¾
‰Â”\‚Å‚ ‚é‚悤‚ÉŽv‚í‚ê‚éB
          ... the perfective indicates ANTERIOR TIME; time preceding whatever
         time orientation is signaled ...
@@@@@(iv) had better, used to‚È‚Ç
@@@@@€‚uŠg[Žq(SEMI-MOD) ‚Ì’†‚É‚ÍAŒ»ÝŒ`‚¾‚¯‚ʼnߋŽŒ`‚ª‘¶Ý‚µ‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚âA
‚»‚Ì‹t‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚à‚ ‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎAhad better‚̉ߋŽŒ`‚Í•’ÊŽg‚í‚ê‚È‚¢‚µAused to ‚É‚»‚Ì
Œ»ÝŒ`‚Í‚È‚¢B‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA
              17)a.  PRS/*PST +  had better
                 b. *PRS/PST +  used to

 ø¢12-10-NT@mLOB CORPUS:RANK LISTn 
          Hofland & Johansson ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA•poƒxƒXƒg‚P‚O‚OŒê’†‚ÉŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚é‚l‚n‚c‚ÍA
                   would(2682‰ñ)Awill(2269‰ñ)Acan(1675‰ñ)A may(1447‰ñ)
                   should(1276‰ñ)Amust(1129‰ñ) 
‚Å‚ ‚éB

 ø¢12-11-NT-(A)@m€‚uŠg[ŽqG‹[Ž—•“®ŽŒG”¼•“®ŽŒG€–@•“®ŽŒn 
         —é–ØEˆÀˆäòip.18j‚ÍA‰pŒê‚Ì•“®ŽŒ‚ð“Œê“I‚È“Á’¥‚©‚çl‚¦‚ÄŽŸ‚Ì‚SŽí 
‚É•ª‚¯A be going to,  have to,  used to  ‚È‚Ç‚ð be able to,  be to ‚È‚Ç‚Æ‚Æ‚à
‚É‹[Ž—•“®ŽŒ‚ƌĂñ‚Å‚¢‚éB
            1)a.‘ŠE‘Ô‚Ì•“®ŽŒFŠ®—¹‘Š‚Ìhave, is‘Š‚Ìbe, Žó“®‘Ô‚Ìbe
              b.–@•“®ŽŒFwill, shall, can, ‚È‚Ç
              c.Žx‚¦•“®ŽŒFdo(does,did)
              d.‹[Ž—•“®ŽŒFhave to, be to, be able to, be about to, be bound
                            to, be going to, be obliged to ‚È‚Ç
         ‚Ü‚½AQuirk et al.(1985, p.137)‚̈ȉº‚̂悤‚È•ª—Þ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA ‚±‚ê‚ç‚Í
Modal Idiom ‚ ‚é‚¢‚ÍSemi-Auxiliary‚Æ‚È‚éB
            2)a.Central Modals;can, could, may, might, shall, should, will,
                              would, must
              b.Marginal Modals;dare, need, ought to, used to
              c.Modal Idioms;had better, would rather, would sooner, be to, 
                            have got to  
              d.Semi-Auxiliaries;be able to, be about to, be apt to, be bound to,
                               be going to, have to
‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉAQuirk et al.i1985, p.146) ‚Å‚ÍAseem to ‚È‚Ç‚ð catenative verb 
construction ‚ƌĂñ‚Å‚¢‚éB
         ‚Ü‚½Ar–ØEˆÀˆä(pp.864-865)‚Í Semi-Auxiliary ‚ðu”¼•“®ŽŒv‚Æ–ó‚µA
‘½‹`«‚ðŽ‚–@•“®ŽŒ‚ɑ΂µ‚ÄA“Á’è‚Ì–@«‚µ‚©Ž¦‚³‚È‚¢”¼•“®ŽŒ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ĈӖ¡‚ª–¾Šm
‚ɂȂ郃Šƒbƒg‚ª‚ ‚Á‚½‚Æ‚·‚éB
         ‚Ü‚½A’†”öEŽ™”n(p.83)‚ÍA—ðŽj“I‚ÉA–@•“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä“Æ—§‚µ‚½ can, will, 
must ‚Ì‘ã‚í‚è‚ÉA–{“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä“­‚­icf.*to can vs to be able to, *will can vs 
will be able to)u€–@•“®ŽŒ(quasi-modal)v‚ª“oꂵ‚½‚Æ‚·‚éB
 @@@@‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚¢‚¤€‚uŠg[Žqo–@«p‚Æ‚uŠg[Žqo–@«p‚Ƃ̈Ⴂ‚Í
ŽŸ‚̂悤‚É‚È‚éB
                   @€‚uŠg[Žqo–@«p@       ‚uŠg[Žqo–@«p
   a)  ingŒ`       @‚Æ‚éi–{“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä“­‚­j   ‚Æ‚ç‚È‚¢
   b)  ‘½‹`«      @‚È‚µ               @@@@‚ ‚è
   c)  ‘¼‚ÌMOD‚Æ‚Ì @§ŒÀ‚ä‚é‚â‚©            @ §ŒÀ‹­‚¢i*will canj
       ‘g‚݇‚킹

 ø¢12-11-NT-(B)@mwas/were able to(‰ß‹Ž‚̈ê‰ñŒÀ‚è‚Ìsˆ×)@vs@could
@@@@@@@@ (‰ß‹Ž‚Ìó‘Ô)n 
@@@@@ˆê”Ê‚ÉAm’蕶‚Åuˆê‰ñŒÀ‚è‚̉ߋŽ‚Ìsˆ×‚âo—ˆŽ–v‚ð•\‚·‚Æ‚«‚Í was/were 
able toAu‰ß‹Ž‚Ìó‘Ôv‚ð•\‚·‚Æ‚«‚É‚Í could ‚ªŽg‚í‚ê‚éB 
              1)a. *I'm really happy - last month I could get my driver's 
                    license.(de Chene, p.40)
                b.  I'm really happy - last month I was able to ...
         @@ 2)  My mother says I could talk by the time I was two.(ibid.)
“¯—l‚̃Rƒƒ“ƒg‚ÍAPalmer, F.R.(p.6, p.88) ‚⬓ciã, p.149)‚É‚àŒ©‚ç‚ê‚éB
@@@@@‚È‚¨A‰ß‹Ž‚Ì”\—Í‚ð•\‚·m’蕶‚Å could ‚ÍA3) ‚̂悤‚ɉߋŽ‚É”\—Í‚ª‚ ‚Á‚½
‚ªŒ»Ý‚Í‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ðˆÓ–¡‚·‚é‚ÆŽå’£‚·‚镶–@‰Æ(¬“cAãAp.149)‚à‚¢‚邪A
              3)  When I was younger, I could run fast.i¡‚Í‘¬‚­‘–‚ê‚È‚¢j
ã‹L 2) ‚Í‚»‚Ì”½—á‚Æ‚È‚éB
@@@@@‚½‚¾‚µA”ے蕶‚Å‚ÍAcouldn't ‚Æ@wasn't/weren't able to ‚̈Ӗ¡‚Í•Ï‚í‚ç
‚È‚¢B
              4)  They couldn't/weren't able to reach the top ....(¬“cAãA
                  p.149)
‚È‚¨Abe able to ‚Æ@can ‚̈Ⴂ‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄA‚³‚ç‚ÉÚ‚µ‚­‚ÍPalmer, F.R.(pp88-89)‚ðŽQ
Æ‚³‚ꂽ‚¢B

 ø¢12-11-NT-(C)@mbe going toil‚̈ӎuj@vs@willi¶•¨E–³¶•¨‚Ì
@@@@@@@@@ ˆÓŽujn 
@@@@@ˆê”Ê‚ÉAbe going to ‚É‚ÍAˆÓŽuAŠmMA˜bŽÒ‚̈Ó}‚Ì—p–@‚ªAwill ‚É‚ÍA
ˆÓŽuAK«AŠW‘R“I„‘ª‚È‚Ç‚Ì—p–@‚ª‚ ‚é‚Æ‚³‚ê‚éBicf.–؉ºApp.163-178)
          
              1) He is about to retire, and is going to hand over the business
                 to his son, Charles, next year.   (p.175)      (ˆÓŽuj
              2) I know he is not going to have any trouble with the language.
                                                                (ŠmMj
              3) You are going to tell me everything that happened with the girl.
                                                                (˜bŽÒ‚̈Ó}j
          
              4)a.  I'll find out the address, and ring you back. (p.165)(ˆÓŽuj
                b.  This door won't open.
              5)  Accidents will happen.  (p.166)(K«j
              6)  Heavy rain will spread into all parts of England this evening...
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ip.166jiŠW‘R“I„‘ªj
‚µ‚©‚µAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍA—é–ØEˆÀˆäò(p.198ff)‚̂悤‚ÉA‚¨‚¨‚«‚­uˆÓŽu–¢—ˆv
‚Æu—\‘ª–¢—ˆv‚É•ª‚¯‚é‚Ì‚ª‚æ‚¢‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚éB‚»‚Ìã‚ÅŽŸ‚Ì‚Q“_‚ªƒ|ƒCƒ“ƒg‚Æ‚È‚éB
        @@@(i) ˆÓŽu–¢—ˆ‚Å‚ÍAwill ‚ÌŽåŒê‚Íl‚ÉŒÀ‚ç‚È‚¢ (cf. 4-a), 4-b)) ‚ªA
be going to ‚ÌŽåŒê‚Íulv‚ÉŒÀ‚ç‚ê‚éB
             7)a. When are you going to leave London?
               b.*When is the ship going to leave here?  [ˆÓŽu–¢—ˆ‚̉ðŽßn
        @@ (ii) —\‘ª–¢—ˆ‚Å‚ÍAbe going to ‚Æ will ‚Æ‚à‚É–³¶•¨‚ÌŽåŒê‚ª‰Â”\i¬
“cAãAp.62j‚Å‚ ‚邪Abe going to ‚Ì‚Ù‚¤‚ª will‚æ‚èŠm’è“I‚Å‚ ‚éBi¼˜QAp.104)
             8)a. She is going to have a baby.
               b. It's going to rain.    --Quirk et al., p.214; Close, p257
             9)a.  According to the weather report, it will be cloudy tomorrow.
               b.  According to the weather report, it is going to be cloudy t.
‚³‚ç‚É‚»‚Ìã‚ÅA㋉ŽÒ‚Íã‹L3)‚̘bŽÒ‚̈Ó}(›U‹È‚È–½—ßj‚â5)‚ÌK«‚âAŽŸ‚̂悤‚È
”ñŽÀŒ»‚Ì—p–@‚È‚Ç‚Éi‚Þ‚±‚ƂƂȂ낤B
@@@@@  10) You were going to give me your address, [...but you didn't.]
                                        (—é–ØEˆÀˆäòAp.218)

 ø¢12-11-NT-(D)@mused toi‹K‘¥“IKŠµj@vs@wouldi•s‹K‘¥“IKŠµjn 
@@@@@—é–ØEˆÀˆäòipp.191-193j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAused to ‚Æwould ‚ÍŽŸ‚̂悤‚ɈقȂéB
    (i) used to ‚ÍAuí‚É`‚µ‚½v‚Æ‚¢‚¤‰ß‹Ž‚Ì‹K‘¥“IKŠµ‚ƂȂ锽•œ“I‚È“®ì‚ð•\‚·
‚Æ‚«‚É—p‚¢‚ç‚êAwould ‚ÍuŽžX`‚µ‚½v‚Æ‚¢‚¤•s‹K‘¥“IKŠµ‚ƂȂ锽•œ“I‚È“®ì‚ð•\‚·B
   (ii) used to ‚ª‹qŠÏ“I‚ȈӖ¡‚ðŠÜ‚ނ̂ɑ΂µ‚Ä would ‚ÍŒÂl“IŠÖS‚ðŽ¦‚·‚Æ‚«‚É
—p‚¢‚邱‚Æ‚ª‘½‚¢B
   (iii) used to ‚ÍuˆÈ‘O‚Í‚±‚¤‚Å‚ ‚Á‚½‚ªi¡‚Í‚»‚¤‚Å‚È‚¢jv‚̂悤‚ɉߋŽ‚ÆŒ»Ý
‚ð‘Δ䂳‚¹‚Ä—p‚¢‚邱‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚邪Awould ‚É‚»‚Ì—p–@‚Í‚È‚¢B
   (iv) ‰ß‹Ž‚Ìó‘Ô‚ð•\‚·ê‡‚É‚Í used to‚ð—p‚¢‚éBˆê•ûAwould ‚É‘±‚¯‚邱‚Æ‚ª‚Å‚«
‚é‚Ì‚Í“®ì“®ŽŒ‚ÉŒÀ‚ç‚ê‚éB
             1) My grandfather used to(*would) be a policeman.(–ÈŠÑ‚Ù‚© p.61)
‚½‚¾‚µA—é–ØEˆÀˆäòiibid. p.192)‚ÍAƒ}ƒŒ‚¾‚ª‚n‚j‚Ì—á‚Æ‚µ‚ÄLeech, G.N.(1987, p.
54-55)‚ÌŽŸ‚Ì—á‚ð‚ ‚°‚éB
             2) He would/used to be sitting on the bench when I passed by.
    (v) would ‚ð—p‚¢‚é‚Ì‚ÍAŽåŒê‚ªlŠÔ‚Å‚ ‚éꇂɌÀ‚éB
   (vi) •·‚«Žè‚É‹¤—L’mŽ¯(shared knowledge)‚ðŠú‘Ò‚Å‚«‚È‚¢ê‡‚ÉA“V‚Ì‚Ö‚«‚ê‚«
(out of the blue)‚̂悤‚ÉA‚¾‚µ‚Ê‚¯‚É...would ‚ð—p‚¢‚邱‚Æ‚Í‚Å‚«‚È‚¢B‚»‚Ìê‡
‚É‚Í used to ‚ð—p‚¢‚éB

 ø¢12-11-NT-(E)@mhave to(‹qŠÏ“I‹`–±)@vs@must(ŽåŠÏ“I‹`–±)n 
@@@@@have to ‚ÍAŽüˆÍ‚ÌŽ–î‚Ŷ‚¶‚é‹qŠÏ“I‹`–±‚ð•\‚µAmust ‚͘b‚µŽè‚ª‰Û‚·‹`
–±‚ð•\‚·BŒ¾‚¢Š·‚¦‚ê‚ÎAhave to ‚Í‹qŠÏ“I‚ÈŽ–ŽÀ‚ð•\‚µAmust‚Ì”wŒi‚ɂ͘b‚µŽè‚ÌŽåŠÏ
“I‚È”»’f‚ª‘¶Ý‚·‚éBŽŸ‚Ì—ái–ÈŠÑ‚Ù‚©Ap.54)ŽQÆB
              1)a. My daughter must be back by ten o'clock.
                   ƒ•ƒe‚ª–º‚Ì–é‚ÌŠOo‚ðˆÄ‚¶‚Ä...„
                b. My daughter has to be back by ten o'clock.
                   ƒŠñhŽÉ‚Ì–åŒÀ„
‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAhave to ‚Ì‚Ù‚¤‚ªmust ‚æ‚肵‚΂µ‚ÎT‚¦‚ß‚É•·‚±‚¦‚éB
@@@@@‚Ü‚½APalmer, F.R.(pp.93-94) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŒ»ÝŒ`‚Ìhave (got) to ‚ÍA
actuality ‚ð imply ‚·‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_‚Å must ‚Ƃ͈قȂéB—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 2) ‚Å‚ÍA
        @@@2jIt's a slow walk down.  He's got to fight his way through the
                  crowds.
ƒ{ƒNƒT[‚ªŽÀۂɒʘH‚ð•à‚¢‚Ä‚¢‚é(is actually doing so)B‚±‚±‚Åmust‚ÍŽg‚¦‚¸Amust
‚ðŽg‚¤‚Æ’P‚É necessary in the future ‚ð•\‚·‚±‚Æ‚Æ‚È‚éB

 ø¢12-11-NT-(F)@mbe to (‘æ‚RŽÒ‚ª—§‚Ä‚½Žè”zÏ‚Ý‚ÌŒv‰æn 
         Leech, G.N.(p.144)‚ÍAŽŸ‚Ì‚R‚‚̕¶‚ð”äŠr‚µ‚ÄA
         @ 1)  The Minister is to meet union officials tomorrow.
            2)  The Minister is meeting union officials tomorrow.
            3)  The Minister meets union officials tomorrow.
 1)‚ÍŽåŒêˆÈŠO‚Ì‘æ‚RŽÒ‚ª—§‚Ä‚½Œv‰æ‚ÅA‚µ‚΂µ‚ÎŒöŽ®‚Ì—\’è‚̈ꕔ‚Å‚ ‚邱‚Æ‚ªˆÃŽ¦‚³‚ê
‚Ä‚¢‚éB‚Ü‚½A1) ‚¾‚¯‚Í–¢—ˆ‚ð•\‚·•›ŽŒ tomorrow ‚ª‚È‚­‚Ä‚à–¢—ˆ‚Ì—\’è‚ɂȂ邪 2) ‚Æ
3) ‚Í tomorrow ‚𜂭‚Æ–¢—ˆ‚ð•\‚·‚±‚Æ‚ª‚Å‚«‚È‚¢‚Æ‚·‚éB
@@@@@—é–ØEˆÀˆäòip.206j‚É‚ÍuŽè”zÏ‚Ýv‚Æ‚¢‚¤•\Œ»AClose, R.A.(p.259)‚É‚Í
official plan or decision ‚Æ‚¢‚¤•\Œ»‚Å“¯—l‚̃Rƒƒ“ƒg‚ ‚èB

 ø¢12-11-NT-(G)@mbe easy toFTough-constructionHEPDHn 
@@@@@Œ´ŒûE’†‘ºipp.487-489j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì1-a) ‚Í 1-b) ‚Æ“¯‹`‚Å‚ ‚邪A‚±‚Ì
1-a)‚̂悤‚Éu“ïˆÕA‰õE•s‰õv‚ð•\‚·qŒê‚ð—p‚¢A•s’莌“à–Ú“IŒê‚̈ʒu‚ɶ‚¸‚é‹óŠ
‚ªŽåߎåŒê‚ɑΉž‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚é\•¶‚ðtough\•¶‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
              1)a. Johni is easy (for us) to please ti.
                b. It is easy (for us) to please John.
@@@@@]—ˆAtough\•¶‚ÍA•s’莌ߓà‚Ì–¼ŽŒ‹å‚ð’¼ÚŽåß‚ÌŽåŒê‚̈ʒu‚Ɉړ®‚·‚é
‚±‚Æ‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä”h¶‚³‚ê‚é‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚½B‚µ‚©‚µ‚È‚ª‚çA‚±‚Ì•ªÍ‚É‚Í‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì–â‘è
“_i‘©”›Œ´—(A)ˆá”½‚È‚Çj‚ª‚ ‚èA‚f‚a—˜_‚Å‚ÍA2)‚̂悤‚ɋ󉉎ZŽqiempty 
operator=Op)‚ð•â•¶‚Ì‚b‚o‚ÌŽw’è•”‚Ɉړ®‚·‚邱‚Æ‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä”h¶‚³‚ê‚é‚Ɖ¼’肳‚ê‚éB
              2) John is easy (for us) [cpOpi[IPPRO to please ti]].  (p.488)
‚µ‚©‚µ‚È‚ª‚çA2)‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä‚àà–¾‚Å‚«‚È‚¢Ž–ŽÀ‚ª‚ ‚èA‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì‰ðŒˆˆÄ‚ª’ñŽ¦‚³‚ê‚Ä‚¢
‚邪A‚Ü‚¾‘Ó–‚Èà–¾‚ðŒ©‚é‚ÉŽŠ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
@@@@@ŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAuŒ`—eŽŒ‚É‘±‚­•s’莌viˆÀˆäA1994, pp.665ff)‚Æ‚µ‚Ä
ŽŸ‚̂悤‚É be able to ‚ȂǂƉ¡•À‚тłƂ炦‚é‚à‚Ì‚à‚ ‚邪A

              3)a.  This is easy to understand .
                b.  I am able to do it.

‚±‚Ì•ªÍ‚Å‚ÍA3-a)‚Ì understand ‚ÌŒã‚Ì‚ªà–¾‚Å‚«‚¸•s“s‡‚Å‚ ‚éB‚»‚±‚Å‚±‚Ì–{‚Å

‚ÍAbe easy to ‚ðoŽógp‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq be-en ‚Æ“¯—l‚ɂƂ炦Aunderstand ‚ÌŒã‚Ì‚Í
d•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹#3 ‚É‚æ‚趂¸‚é‚Æl‚¦‚éB
@@@@@@  4)a.  This map is easy to read *this map/*itself/.

                b.  This map is read *this map/*itself/ (by many drivers).

@@@@@‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉA‚±‚Ìd•¡ƒ‹[ƒ‹#3 ‚ÍAŽŸ‚Ì 5-a)’† ‚Ì‚ð‚àà–¾‚·‚邱‚Æ‚É‚È‚éB

              5)a.  This novel took me 3 years to write .

                b. =It took me 3 years to write this novel.
                                 (McCawley,J.D. 1988 p.104)

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