‘æIIIÍ@“®ŽŒ‚ÌŠg[ y‹³Žt—pƒm[ƒgz


‚k‚d‚r‚r‚n‚m@‚P‚T@@‚uŠg[Žq{Žóg}: PASSibe-enj

 ø¢15-1-NT-(A)@mƒAƒ‰ƒrƒAŒê‚ÌŽógn 
         ”‚ ‚錾Œê‚Ì’†‚É‚ÍAoŽógp‚̈Ӗ¡‚ð•\‚·‚½‚ß‚Ì•¶–@Œ`Ž®‚ðŽ‚½‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚à
‚ ‚éB El-Yasin, M.K. (pp.202-203) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAƒAƒ‰ƒrƒAŒê‚ÉŽó“®‘Ô‚ÌŒ`Ž®‚Í‚È‚­A‚¢
‚í‚ä‚éoŽógp‚ÍAŽŸ‚Ì 2) ‚̂悤‚ÈŒ`‚Å•\‚³‚ê‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
             1) English: ‚w is done by ‚xD
             2) Arabic:‚wC‚x does it. (it‚Í‚w‚ð•\‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éj

 ø¢15-1-NT-(B)@m–À˜f‚ÌŽógn 
         ”€Š_i1978, pp.124-130)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA“ú–{Œê‚Å‚Íu–À˜f‚ÌŽógvˆÈŠO‚ÌŽóg‚ÍA
–¾Ž¡ˆÈ‘O‚Í‚ ‚Ü‚èŽg‚í‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚È‚©‚Á‚½Biu‰ï‡‚ªŠJ‚©‚ê‚évAu’Ês‚ª‹ÖŽ~‚³‚ê‚év‚È
‚Ç‚ÌŽóg•\Œ»‚Í–¾Ž¡ˆÈŒã‚Ì–|–󒲂̉e‹¿‚Å‚ ‚éj‚»‚Ì‚©‚í‚èu•xŽmŽR‚ªŒ©‚¦‚év‚Ȃlj”\
“®ŽŒ‚ªŽóg‚Ì–ðŠ„‚ð‰Ê‚½‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚½B

 ø¢15-1-NT-(C)@mChomsky, N.‚É‚æ‚éŽógŒ`‚Ì•ªÍn 
@@@@@Chomsky, N.(1957j‚ÍA‚¢‚Á‚½‚ñ(p.39)A
              1)a. AUX ¨  C(M)(have+en)(be+ing)(be+en)
                b. ‚b  ¨  ‚r   in the context NPsing 

                              in the context NPpl
                           past
‚ð’ñˆÄB‚»‚ÌŒãip.43)ube+en ‚É‚Í‘¼‚Ì auxiliaries ‚Æ‚¿‚ª‚Á‚Ä heavy restrictions
 ‚ª‚ ‚év‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAbe+en ‚ðÈ‚­‚±‚Æ‚ð’ñˆÄA‚±‚ê‚ð have+en, be+ing‚̉„’·üã‚É‚¨‚­
‚Ì‚Å‚Í‚È‚­A•ÏŒ`‚̈ꕔ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä“±“ü‚µ‚½B
@@@@@‚µ‚©‚µA‚»‚ÌŒãAChomsky, N.(1965) ‚Ì
              2)    Manner ¨ by-passive
‚É‚æ‚é be-en ‚Ì“±“ü‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚â‚â clumsy ‚ÈŽžŠú‚ðŒo‚ÄAÅI“I‚É‚ÍAChomsky, N.(1981, 
p.54) ‚Å‚ÍA
              3)a. John was killed
                b. John INFL be [ƒ¿kill* t]
                c. [NPe] INFL be [ƒ¿kill* John]
                   (..., where kill* is a form of kill, t is the trace of John,
                    and [NPe] is a base-generated empty category)
‚ð’ñˆÄ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB

 ø¢15-3-NT-(A)@mŽógŒ`‚ÌŽw“±n 
@@@@@]—ˆAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAŽógŒ`‚ÌŽw“±‚É‚¢‚í‚ä‚éuƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®]‚ð—p‚¢‚é
‚±‚Æ‚ª‘½‚©‚Á‚½B‚‚܂èAŽŸ‚Ì1-a) ‚©‚ç1-b)‚ð¶‚Ýo‚·‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB
@@@@@@@1)a. The compute wrote a novel.
		b. A novel was written by the computer.
‚½‚¾‚µA‚±‚Ìuƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®v‚É‚æ‚éŽw“±‚É‚ÍA‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì–â‘è“_‚ª‚ ‚éB
@@@@@(i)ƒƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®‚Ì–â‘è“_„
@@@@@@@(a)ƒIƒ‚ƒei”\“®Œ`j‚ƃEƒ‰iŽó“®Œ`j‚ª‚»‚ë‚í‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚é
@@@@@Quirk et al.(1985, p.167)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 2) ` 9) ‚Í‚·‚ׂÄL‹`‚ÌŽógŒ`‚Æ
ŒÄ‚ׂé‚à‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚邪A‚Í‚Á‚«‚è‚ƑΉž‚µ‚½”\“®Œ`‚ðŽ‚‚Ƃ¢‚¤“_‚Å 2) ` 5) ‚Ì‚Ý‚ª^‚Ì
Žó“®Œ`icentral passivesj‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
              2) This violin was made by my father.
              3) This conclusion is hardly justified by the results.
              4) Coal has been replaced by oil.
              5) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways.
            ------------------------------------------------------------------
              6) We are encouraged to go on with the project.
              7) Leonard was interested in linguistics.
              8) The building is already demolished.
              9) The modern world is getting more highly industrialized and
                 mechanized.
6) ` 7) ‚͑Ήž‚·‚é”\“®Œ`‚ðŽ‚‚ªA quite, rather ‚È‚Ç‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄCü‚³‚ꂤ‚é‚È‚Ç
be + Œ`—eŽŒ‚ÌŒ`‚É‹ß‚­Asemi-passives ‚ƌĂÔB‚Ü‚½A8) ‚â 9) ‚ÍA‘Ήž‚·‚é”\“®Œ`‚Í
‚È‚­A by `‚à]‚¦‚È‚¢B‚±‚ê‚Í pseudo-passives ‚ƌĂÔB‚»‚µ‚Ä 2) ‚©‚ç 9) ‚É‚Í
passive ‚炵‚³‚ɂ‚¢‚Ä‚Ì gradience ‚ª‚ ‚é‚ÆŽå’£‚·‚éB(p.167)
@@@@@‚Ü‚½AˆÀˆäi1944, p.502)‚É‚ÍAŽåŒêŽwŒü‚Ì williˆÓŽuAˆÓ}j‚ÍŽóg‚É‚·
‚é‚ƈӖ¡•Ï‚í‚é‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAŽŸ‚̗Ⴊ‚ ‚éB
             10)a. Terry won't be helped by Mildred.
                b. =/= Mildred won't help Terry.
‚³‚ç‚ÉAã‹L 1-b) ‚ÆŽŸ‚Ì 11) ‚ÍAVî•ñ[‹Œî•ñ‚È‚Ç‚Ìî•ñ\‘¢ã‚̉ðŽß‚ð‰Á‚¦‚é‚ÆA
‚»‚ꂼ‚êˆÙ‚È‚Á‚½ˆÓ–¡‚ðŽ‚Á‚Ä‚¨‚è(cf.15-6-NT-(A)jAŒµ–§‚ȈӖ¡‚Å“¯‹`‚Æ‚Í‚¢‚¦‚È‚¢B
	@@ 11) A novel was written.
‚‚܂èA1-b)‚Å‚Íby the computer‚ªA11)‚Å‚Íwritten‚ªVî•ñ‚¾‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB‚‚܂èA
1-a), 1-b), 11) ‚ÍŒµ–§‚É‚Í‚»‚ꂼ‚êˆÓ–¡‚ªˆÙ‚È‚é‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB

    @@@@@(b)‚̈ӎ¯‚¯‚ª‚Å‚«‚È‚¢i“®ŽŒŒ^=/=•¶Œ^‚Ì—áj

          ã‹L 1-b) ‚ÍA–{•¶’†‚É‚àq‚ׂ½‚ªŒµ–§‚É‚ÍŽŸ‚Ì 12) ‚̂悤‚É•\‚³‚ê‚é‚ׂ«‚à
‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB

        @@ 12) A novel was written    by the computer.

‚‚܂èA12) ‚Í‚¢‚í‚ä‚鎩“®ŽŒ‚©‚綂܂ꂽ‚Ì‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢B1-a) ‚Ì“®ŽŒŒ^‚Í VZ+NA•¶Œ^‚Í

N+VZ+N ‚Å‚ ‚邪A12) ‚Ì“®ŽŒŒ^‚Í 1-a) ‚Æ“¯‚¶VZ+N‚Å‚à•¶Œ^‚ÍN+VZ+  ‚Å‚ ‚èA1-a)‚Æ‚Í

ˆÙ‚È‚é‚à‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB
     @@@@ (c)Žóg‚ð‚Ó‚­‚Þ•¡‡Šg[Œ`‚̶¬‚̓^ƒXƒL‚ª‚¯‚ł͂ނ‚©‚µ‚¢B
             13)a.  The new robot will be kicking the old one.
                b.  The old robot will be being kicked by the new one.
             14)a.  The new robot will have been kicking the old one.
                b.  The old robot will have been being kicked by the new one.
ã‚ÅA13-a) A14-a)‚©‚çA‚»‚ꂼ‚ê 13-b)A14-b)‚ð¶‚Ýo‚·‚±‚Æ‚ÍŒ¾ŒêŽhŒƒ‚Ì­‚È‚¢
‚k2ŠwKŽÒ‚É‚Í‚«‚í‚߂Ăނ‚©‚µ‚¢B
          (ii)ƒˆÚ“®•ûŽ®‚Ì–â‘è“_„
@@@@@ˆê•ûAŋ߂̉Ȋw•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAŽógŒ`‚Í‚à‚Æ‚à‚Æ“®ŽŒ‹å‚Ì’†‚ÉŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚é–¼ŽŒ‚Ì
•¶“ªˆÚ“®‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ķ‚Ýo‚³‚ê‚éBicf. Chomsky, N. 1981, p.54j—Ⴆ‚ÎAde Chene
(p.158)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì15-b)‚Í‚¨‚¨‚Þ‚Ë 15-a) ‚̂悤‚È\‘¢‚©‚綂Ýo‚³‚ê‚éB

              15)a.  [  was kissed Jim]  (ˆÚ“®‚Ì‘Oj

                 b.  [Jimi was kissed ti]  (ˆÚ“®‚ÌŒãj 
‚½‚¾‚µA‚±‚ÌŒ`‚ð‚»‚Ì‚Ü‚ÜŠwK‰p•¶–@‚ÅŽg‚¤‚É‚ÍA–â‘肪‚ ‚éB‚»‚ÌÅ‘å‚Ì–â‘è“_‚ÍA

ŽåŒêisubject) ‚ªƒ[ƒij‚ÅŽn‚܂镶‚ÍAtopic ‚ªƒ[ƒij‚ÅŽn‚܂邱‚Æ‚ðˆÓ–¡

‚·‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_‚Å‚ ‚éBicf. Quirk et al. 1985, p.79) ‚‚܂èAtopic ‚Ì‘O‚É comment
‚ª‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤ 15-a) ‚̂悤‚ÈŒ`‚ÍAŒ¾ŒêK“¾ƒ‹[ƒ‹‚Ì‚©‚È‚èŠî–{“I‚È‚Æ‚±‚ë‚Å–{”\‚ð‹t
‚È‚Å‚·‚é•”•ª‚ª‚ ‚èA‹³ŽºŒ»ê‚Ö‚Ì“±“ü‚É‚Í‘å‚«‚È¢“—\‘z‚³‚ê‚é‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB‚Æ‚è‚í
‚¯A•¶–@‚ð”­MŒ^‚łƂ炦‚½ê‡AŽŸ‚Ì16) ‚̂悤‚ÈŒ`‚ªŽ©‘R‚Å‚ ‚é‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚éB
              16) A novel ¨ PT ¨ be-en  ¨ ‚u(VZ + ‚m) 
          (iii)ƒ‘æ‚R‚Ì•ûŽ®FEQUI•ûŽ®„
@@@@@ƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®‚¾‚ßAˆÚ“®•ûŽ®‚¾‚ßA‚Æ‚È‚ê‚ÎA‘æ‚R‚Ì•ûŽ®‚ªl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚˂΂È
‚ç‚È‚¢B‚»‚µ‚Ä‚±‚Ì‘æ‚R‚Ì•ûŽ®‚É‚ÍA­‚È‚­‚Æ‚àŽŸ‚Ì‚Q‚‚̃|ƒCƒ“ƒg‚ªŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚˂΂Ȃç‚È
‚¢B
         (1) be-en ‚ð‚Í‚³‚ñ‚¾‚Q‚‚̂mia novel)‚ª•K‚¸“¯‚¶‚à‚Ì‚ð‚³‚µA

         (2) ‚Q‚‚߂̂m‚ª ANAŒ`‚ɂȂ炸•K‚¸‚É‚È‚éB

‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA(1) ‚Æ(2) ‚ð•ÛØ‚·‚é‚Ì‚Í‚uŠg[Žq be-en ‚Ì‹@”\‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚É‚È‚éB‚Ü‚½A
‹t‚ÉA(1)‚Æ(2)‚ÌðŒ‚ª–ž‚½‚³‚ê‚È‚¢ŒÀ‚è be-en ‚Í“±“ü‚³‚ê‚È‚¢B
         @@ 17)a. *A novel - PRS/PST - be-en -write a letter
                 b. *A novel - PRS/PST - be-en - write(Vi)
@@      ‚©‚­‚µ‚ÄA‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍAŽógŒ`‚ðA
         (i) ƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®‚Å‚È‚­A
        (ii) ˆÚ“®•ûŽ®‚Å‚È‚­A
       (iii) {–@«pAoŠ®—¹pA{isp‚Ì‚uŠg[Žq‚É‚æ‚éŠg[‚Æ“¯—lAoŽógp‚Ì

             ‚uŠg[Žq‚É‚æ‚é“®ŽŒi‚uj‚ÌŠg[‚Æ‚µ‚ÄA‚‚܂èA ‚ð¶‚Ýo‚·EQUI•û

             Ž®‚ÅA
ˆµ‚¤B
@@@@@‚¿‚È‚Ý‚ÉAChomsky, N.(1957, p.43)‚̂悤‚ÉAbe-en ‚𓮎Œi‚uj‚ÌŠg[‚Ì
˜g‘g‚Ý‚©‚çŠO‚µ‚Ĉʒu‚¯‚镶–@‰Æ‚Í‘½‚¢B—Ⴆ‚ÎAMorenberg, M.(p.26j‚ÍAtense, 
modality, aspect(perf+prog) ‚Ü‚Å‚Í Expanding Verb Phrases ‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚邪A
pass ‚Í”²‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚éB‚»‚̪‹’‚Æ‚µ‚ÄÅ‚àˆê”Ê“I‚È‚à‚Ì‚ÍAbe-en ‚Í have-en ‚â be-ing 
‚É”ä‚×A“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚Ì‘g‚݇‚킹‚ÌۂɧŒÀ‚ª‘½‚¢i‚Í‚Á‚«‚肵‚½”í“®ìŽå‚ª•K—v‚È‚Çj‚Æ‚¢

‚¤“_‚Æ‚Í•Ê‚ÉAŽŸ‚Ì 18-d) ‚̂悤‚É‚`‚m‚`Œ`‚Å‚Í‚È‚­‚ð¶‚Ýo‚·‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_‚Å‚ ‚éB

              18)a. The president will kill himself.     [will]
                 b. The president has killed himself.    [have-en]
                 c. The president is killing himself.    [be-ing]

                 d. The president was killed *himself/.[be-en]

@@@@@ˆê•ûAbe-ing ‚É‘±‚­‚S‚Â–Ú‚Ì AUX ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä be-en ‚ðl‚¦‚é‚Ì‚ÍA
Celce-Murcia&Larsen-Freeman(1983/1999), Huddleston, R.(1984, p.131), 
Wardhaugh, R.(p.56), Quirk et al.(1985, p.151)‚È‚Ç‚Å‚ ‚éB
         —Ⴆ‚ÎACelce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman(1983, p.224/1999, p.344)‚Å‚ÍA
         @@ 19) ‚`‚t‚w¨o‚s^‚l (pm) (perf) (prog) (pass)p
                          o-imperp
                  (pm ‚Í have to ‚È‚Ç‚Ì phrasal modals) 

‚Æ‚È‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éBi‚Í•\‹L‚³‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚È‚¢j


 ø¢15-3-NT-(B)@m‚SŽí—Þ‚Ìn 

         –{•¶‚Ì(7)‚Æ(8)‚Í‚Æ‚à‚Éd•¡‚ ‚è‚Å‹`–±“IAˆê•ûA(9) ‚Íd•¡‚ ‚è‚Å”CˆÓ“I‚È

‚Å‚ ‚éB

   @@@@@(i) d•¡‚ ‚è{‹`–±“I

                   1) This is the book that I bought  yesterday.   =–{•¶‚Ì(7)

                   2) The refugees have no house to live in .      =–{•¶‚Ì(8)

            (ii) d•¡‚ ‚è{”CˆÓ“I

                   3) My car isn't working. I'll have to use Mary's [car/].

                                                                     =–{•¶‚Ì(9)
“–‘RAd•¡‚È‚µ‚Å‹`–±“I‚È‚ÆAd•¡‚È‚µ‚Å”CˆÓ“I‚È‚à‘¶Ý‚·‚éB

           (iii) d•¡‚È‚µ{‹`–±“I

                   4) Whom does Jim like  ?

                   5) I saw  him  run away.

            (iv) d•¡‚È‚µ{”CˆÓ“I

                   6) I think [that/] John told a lie.

                   7) [I//] will be back soon.

‚±‚ê‚ç‚SŽí‚̂ɂ‚¢‚ÄA‚³‚ç‚É‚­‚킵‚­‚Í cf. 11-1-NT-(E)B


 ø¢15-4-NT@mVZ + ‚m1{‚m2 Œ^“®ŽŒ‚ÌŽógŒ`n 
@@@@@VZ + ‚m1{‚m2 Œ^“®ŽŒ‚ÌŽógŒ`‚ÍAŠwK‰p•¶–@i”­MŒ^j‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍAŽŸ‚Ì‚æ
‚¤‚É‚Ü‚Æ‚ß‚ç‚ê‚悤B
     @@@@(i) ‚m2 ‚ðŽåŒê‚Æ‚·‚éŽóg‚Í‚¨‚¨‚Þ‚Ë•s‰ÂB
                1)a.  John sold Mary the book.
                  b.  Mary was sold the book (by John).
                  c. *The book was sold Mary (by John). i¬¼A1980, p.1360)
                2)a.  John bought Mary a new wardrobe.  
                  b.  Mary was bought a new wardrobe by John.
                  c. *A new wardrobe was bought Mary by Jonn.@(ibid., p.192)
                3)a.  Someone gave the boy a present.
                  b.  The boy was given a present.
                  c. ?A present was given the boy. (?‚Íu‚Ü‚êv)(ibid., p.639)
‚½‚¾‚µA‚m2‚ª‘ã–¼ŽŒ‚Ì‚Æ‚«‚n‚j‚Ì—á‚àB
                4) The book was sold her (by John).     (ibid., p.1360)
@@@@@Quirk et al. (1985, p.58) ‚Ì—á‚ÍA
                5)a. Some flowers had been brought him.(less natural)
                  b. Some folwers had been brought for him.(natural)
‚½‚¾‚µA
                6)  *Some fish had been caught/bought/cooked us.(Quirk, p.58)
             (ii) ‚m1 to ‚m‚̈Ӗ¡Ž‚Âꇂ͂m1ŽåŒê‚ÌŽógŒ`‚n‚jB ˆê•ûA‚m1 =
for ‚m ‚̈Ӗ¡‚ðŽ‚Âꇂ͎ógŒ`•s‰Â‚Å‚ ‚邱‚Æ‘½‚¢B
@@@@@McCawley, J.D.(1988, p.79) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
                7)a.  Honest Oscar sold my brother a car for $200. 

                  b.  My brother was sold  a car for $200 by Honest Osc.

                  c. %A car was sold my brother for $200 by Honest Oscar.
                     i% means "more normal in British than in American English")
                8)a.  Fred bought Ethel a birthday present.

                  b. ?Ethel was bought  a birthday present by Fred. 

                  c.??A birthday present was bought Ethel by Fred. 
“¯‚¶VZ{‚m{‚mŒ^‚Å‚àA'to-dative' constructions(= sell a car to my brother) ‚Ì 
indirect object ‚ÍŽógŒ`‰ÂBˆê•ûA'for-dative' constructions (=buy a present 
for Ethel) ‚Ìꇂ͎ógŒ`‚Í ?/??i‚Ù‚Ú•s‰ÂjB

 ø¢15-5-NT-(A)@mValency:‘ìAAllertonn 
@@@@@ƒ‘ì‚Ìu‘¼“®ŽŒ‚ÆŽ©“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚ÌÚ“_‚É•À‚Ô‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì“®ŽŒŒQv„
         ‘ìiin ’¹‹E•ìAp.201ffj‚ÍAu‘¼“®ŽŒ‚ÆŽ©“®ŽŒ‚Æ‚ÌÚ“_‚É•À‚Ô‚¢‚­‚‚©
‚Ì“®ŽŒŒQv‚Æ‚µ‚ÄŽŸ‚Ì‚P‚TŽí‚ð‚ ‚°A‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄŽógŒ`‚̉Â^•s‰Â‚ð˜_‚¶‚Ä‚¢‚éB
             1) This book sells well.
             2) He died a millionaire.
             3) We walked five miles.
             4) The flowers cost fifty pence.
             5) Nobody slept in the bed.
             6) Everyone laughed at him.
             7) The horse knocked down the fence.
             8) The spallow flew a town.
             9) She laughed her thanks.
            10) She smiled a sweet smile.
            11) The suit became him very well.
            12) I have two brothers.
            13) They behaved themselves.
            14) She nods her head.
            15) He decorated the wall with pictures. 
         ŠwK‰p•¶–@‚ÅAŽógŒ`‚ÌŠwK‚ð“‚­‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Ì‚ÍAŽŸ‚Ì‚R“_‚Å‚ ‚낤B
(i)”\“®Œ`|Žó“®Œ`‚ª‚»‚ë‚í‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éA(ii)ˆÓ–¡‚ª“¯‚¶‚悤‚ÉŒ©‚¦‚Ĉê•û‚ªŽóg
‰ÂA‘¼•û‚ª•s‰Â‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éA(iii)“®ŽŒ‹å‚ÌŠO‘¤‚ÌðŒ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŽóg‰Â/•s‰Â‚Æ‚È‚é‚à
‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éB‚»‚ꂼ‚ê‚Ì—á‚ðŽ¦‚·‚ÆA
@@@@(i)”\“®Œ`|Žó“®Œ`‚ª‚»‚ë‚í‚È‚¢‚à‚Ì
               16)a.  They caught the 9:30 train. 
                  b. *The 9:30 train was caught by them.
               17)a.  He clapped his hands. 
                  b. *His hands were clapped by him. (N2‚ª‚©‚炾‚Ì ˆê•”) 
       (ii)ˆÓ–¡‚ª“¯‚¶‚悤‚ÉŒ©‚¦‚Ĉê•û‚ªŽóg‰ÂA‘¼•û‚ª•s‰Â‚Ì‚à‚Ì
               18)a.  The hot weather couldn't be endured.
                  b. *The hot weather couldn't be stood.
               19)a.  The farm was owned by the Smiths. 
                  b. *The farm was possessed by the Smiths. 
      (iii)“®ŽŒ‹å‚ÌŠO‘¤‚ÌðŒ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŽóg‰Â/•s‰Â‚Æ‚È‚é‚à‚Ì
               20)a.  This house was lived in by George Washington. 
                  b. *Virginia was lived in by George Washington.
                  c.  Chicago has been lived in by generations of immigrants. 
                  d. *Chicago has been lived in by my mother. 
        ƒValency by Allerton„                       
@@@@@Allerton, D.J.(pp80ff)‚ÍA‚¢‚í‚ä‚ésubject, object, complement ‚ð verb 
elaborators ‚ƌĂÑA‚Æ‚­‚ÉŒã‚ë‚Q‚Â(second elaborators)‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄÚq‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB—Ⴆ
‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì‚T‚Â(p.81)‚ðA
             (1)  Oliver damaged the key.
             (2)  Oliver resembled Richard.
             (3)  Oliver weighed tweleve stone(m:stones‚Å‚È‚¢!)
             (4)  Oliver had the documents.
             (5)  Oliver remained a thief.
NP replacement,  Cleft,  Passivization,  NP exchange,  How much question ‚È‚Ç‚Ì
ƒeƒXƒg‚É‚æ‚èA(1)= Object,  (2)=Match Objoid,  (3)=Measure Objoid, (4)=Possesion
Objoid,  (5)=Predicative ‚Æ•ª‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚éB(p.88)@‚»‚µ‚ÄA (1)‚Ì the key ‚Ì‚Ý‚ª 
passive elaborator ‚Å object ‚ƌĂׂéB (2)`(4)‚Ì Richard, etc. ‚ÍŠ®‘S‚ȈӖ¡‚Å
‚Í object ‚ƌĂׂ¸ pseudo-object ‚ ‚é‚¢‚Í objoid ‚ƌĂԂׂ«‚Æ‚·‚éB(p.82)

 ø¢15-5-NT-(B)@mƒfƒNƒ‰[ƒNA‹v–ìA‚Œ©ABolinger ‚̉¼àn 
@@@@@ (i)ƒƒfƒNƒ‰[ƒN‚Ì“®ìŽå§Œä‚̉¼à„@@
@@@@@ˆÀˆä(1994Ap.269)/ Declerck, R.(1991Ap.200) ‚ÍAƒ^ƒXƒLƒKƒP•ûŽ®‚É‚æ‚é
ŽógŒ`‚̶¬‚ð‘O’ñ‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚é‚悤‚Å‚ ‚邪AuŽó“®‘Ô‚É‚Å‚«‚é‚Ì‚ÍADD“®ì‚ª‘ÎÛ‚É
‚È‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚ÄA‚µ‚©‚àA‚»‚Ì“®ì‚ð“®ìŽå‚ª§Œä‚Å‚«‚éꇂɌÀ‚ç‚ê‚é (...only possible
when the the situation referrred to is dynamic and moreover controlled by an 
agent,...)‚Æ‚µ‚ÄAŽó“®‘Ô‚ð—p‚¢‚邱‚Æ‚ª‚Å‚«‚È‚¢ê‡‚ðŽŸ‚Ì‚æ‚¤‚É‚Ü‚Æ‚ß‚Ä‚¢‚éB
         1. “®ìŽå‚É‚æ‚Á‚ħŒä‚Å‚«‚È‚¢‚悤‚ȉߒö‚ªq‚ׂç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éê‡B
               1) The country has changed its appearance. (no passive) 
               2) The hurricane has now reduced its speed. (no passive) 
         2. “®ì‚Å‚Í‚È‚­Ao—ˆŽ–‚ªq‚ׂç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éê‡B
               3) John received an anonymous letter yesterday. (no passive) 
         3. “®ŽŒ‚ªAŠÖŒWŠT”O‚âó‘Ô‚È‚Ç‚ð•\‚·ê‡B
               4) This bucket contains petrol! (no passive) 
               5) I have no answer to that.    (no passive)
         4. ”F’m‚É‚©‚©‚í‚éˆÓ–¡‚ð•\‚·S—“I‚È“®ŽŒ‚Ìê‡B
               6) He likes you.  (no passive) 
@@@@@‚Œ©ipp.29ff)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽóg•¶‚̉”ۂÍA‹v–ì‚ÌuƒCƒ“ƒ”ƒHƒ‹ƒuƒƒ“ƒg‰¼
àv‚Å‚Í‹[Ž—Žóg•¶‚Ì‘½‚­‚ðà–¾‚Å‚«‚È‚¢ip.66j‚Æ‚±‚ë‚©‚çAu“Á’¥‚¯‰¼àv‚ð’Ç
‰Á‚µA‚±‚Ì‚Q‚‚̂¤‚¿‚Ì‚Ç‚¿‚ç‚©‚ð–ž‚½‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚ê‚ΓKŠi‚Æ‚È‚é‚Æ‚·‚éBip.72)
         (ii) ƒ‹v–ì‚̃Cƒ“ƒ”ƒHƒ‹ƒuƒƒ“ƒg‰¼à„
     u‰pŒê‚ÌŽóg•¶‚ª“KŠi‚Æ‚È‚é‚Ì‚ÍADDD‚»‚Ì‘¼“®ŽŒ‚ª•\‚·sˆ×‚âó‘Ô‚É–Ú“IŒê‚ª
ƒCƒ“ƒ”ƒHƒ‹ƒuiŠÖ—^j‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éê‡DDD–Ú“IŒê‚ɉ½‚©‚ª‚È‚³‚ꂽ‚Æ‚¢‚¤Ž–‚ªŽ¦‚³‚ê‚Ä 
‚¢‚éꇂł ‚évi‚Œ©Ap.30)
        (iii) ƒ‚Œ©‚Ì“Á’¥‚¯‰¼à„
      u‰pŒê‚Ì‹[Ž—Žóg•¶‚ÍAŽåŒê‚ª‚»‚ÌŽóg•¶‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä“Á’¥‚¯‚ç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éꇂɓKŠi
‚Æ‚È‚évi‚Œ©Ap.59j
              7)a. *This building was walked in front of by John last month.
                b.  This building was walked in front of by the Japanese 
                    Emperor last month.
7-a) ‚Ì John ‚Í‚ ‚Ü‚è‚É•½–}Bˆê•ûA7-b) ‚Í Japanese Emperor ‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä building ‚ª
Û—§‚½‚¹‚ç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
@@@@@‚½‚¾‚µAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Å‚ÍAŽŸ‚̂悤‚ÈBolinger, D.(1975, p.67) ‚Ìu‰e‹¿v
‰¼à‚Å\•ª‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚éB
  @@@ (iv)ƒBolinger‚̉e‹¿‰¼à„
    @@@@@The subject in a passive construction is conceived to be a true 
              patient, i.e., to be genuinely affected by the action of the verb.
     @@@@iŽóg•¶‚ÌŽåŒê‚ÍA^‚̔퓮ŽÒ(true patient)‚Å‚ ‚èA“®ŽŒ‚Ì•\‚·sˆ×‚É
              ‚æ‚Á‚Ä^‚ɉe‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚é(genuinely affected)‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éji˜a–ó
              ‚Í‚Œ©Ap.31)
—Ⴆ‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 8-b), 9-b), 10-b) ‚Å‚ÍAI, the bridge, He ‚ª^‚ɉe‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚é‚Ì
‚ÅŽóg‰Â‚Æ‚È‚éB
       @@@8)a. *I was approached by the train.
        @@@ b.  I was approached by the stranger.
       @@@9)a. *The bridge was walked under by the dog.
         @@@b.  The bridge has been walked under by generations of lovers.
      @@@10)a. *He was crawled on by a bug.
         @@@b.  He was crawled on by an elephant. [“®ìŽå‚ª‘å‚«‚È“®•¨n
‚Ü‚½AŽŸ‚̂悤‚È—áip.69)‚Å‚ÍA
            11)a. *The stairs were run up by Jane. 
               b.  These stairs have been run up so much that the carpet is 
                   threadbare.
Jane‚ЂƂ肪ŠK’i‚ð‹ì‚¯ã‚ª‚Á‚Ä‚àA ŠK’i‚͕ʂɉe‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚È‚¢B‚µ‚©‚µA‚±‚ê‚Ü‚Å”ñ
í‚É‘½‚­‚Ìl‚ª‹ì‚¯ã‚ª‚Á‚½‚½‚ß‚ÉAãOãj‚ª‚·‚èØ‚ê‚Ä‚µ‚Ü‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚ê‚ÎAŠK’i‚Í–¾‚ç‚©‚É
‰e‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚é‚©‚çA Žó“®‘Ô‚ª¬—§‚·‚éB
@@@@@ŽŸ‚Ì—á‚à‚Ü‚½A‚±‚Ì Bolinger ‚̉¼à‚Åà–¾‰Â”\‚ÆŽv‚í‚ê‚éB
        @  12)a.  In the movie 'Home Alone', Kevin was left at home by his 
                   family.
               b. *The house was left by the family.  (‘å¼&McVayAp.68)
            13)a.  The page was turned by George.i‘ìAp.201ff)
               b. *The corner was turned by George.
            14)a.  He resembles his father in appearance.(]ìAp.277)
               b. *His father is resembled in appearance by him.
            15)  George was met at the airport.  (Bolinger, D. 1980, p.190)
            16)a. The shop was entered by two thieves.   (’†ìAp.154)
               b.*The shop was entered by two boys.
            17)a. They arrived at the stadium.   (Quirk et al. 1985, p.163)
               b.*The stadium was arrived at.
               c. They arrived at the conclusion.
               d. The conclusion was arrived at.
@@@@@‚½‚¾‚µAã‚Ì‚¢‚­‚‚©‚Ì—á‚©‚ç‚à‚í‚©‚é‚悤‚ÉANo{VZ + N‚P ‚Ì\‘¢‚ÅA
uN‚P‚ªi‚Ç‚Ì’ö“xj‰e‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚é‚©v‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ÍA‚µ‚΂µ‚ÎuNo ‚ªi‚Ç‚Ì’ö“xj
‰e‹¿‚ð—^‚¦‚Ä‚¢‚é‚©v‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŒˆ’肳‚ê‚éB—Ⴆ‚ÎA8) ‚Å‚ÍAapproach me 
‚Ì me ‚ª‚Ç‚Ì’ö“x‰e‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚Ä‚¢‚é‚©‚ÍANo ‚ª the train ‚© the stranger ‚©‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä
Œˆ‚Ü‚éB‚±‚ê‚ÍŽógŒ`i‚Æ‚è‚킯by`‚ðŽ‚ÂꇂɂÍj‚Ì‰Â”Û‚ðŒˆ’è‚·‚é—vˆö‚ª‚µ‚΂µ‚Î
“®ŽŒ‹å‚ÌuŠO‘¤v‚É‚ ‚邱‚Æ‚ðˆÓ–¡‚·‚éB

 ø¢15-5-NT-(D)@mˆÓ–¡Ši‚©‚猩‚½Žó“®‰Â”\«n 
@@@@@(i)ƒJackendoff ‚Ì•ªÍ„
@@@@@—é–ØEˆÀˆäòip.345ffj‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAJackendoff, R.(1972) ‚Í•¶’†‚Ì–¼ŽŒ‹å‚ª
’S‚¤Žå‘èŠÖŒWithematic relationj‚É A. ‚ÉŽ¦‚·ŠK‘wŠÖŒW‚ð‰¼’è‚µAB. ‚̂悤‚ȧ–ñ‚ð
‚à‚¤‚¯‚Ď󓮉”\«‚ðà–¾‚µ‚悤‚Æ‚µ‚½B
          A.Žå‘èŠK‘w (thematic hierarchy)
             i. Agenti“®ìŽåj
            ii. LocationiêŠjA Sourcei‹N“_jAGoali’…“_j
           iii. ThemeiŽå‘èj
          B.Žó“®•¶‚ÌŽå‘觖ñ
                Žó“®•¶‚Ì by-‹å‚ÍAŽó“®•¶‚ÌŽåŒê‚æ‚è‚àŽå‘èŠK‘w‚É‚¨‚¢‚Ä‚‚­‚È‚¯‚ê
                ‚΂Ȃç‚È‚¢B
‚½‚¾‚µAŽŸ‚Ì 1-b) ‚Ì•s“KŠi«‚âA1-a) ‚Æ 2-a) ‚̈Ⴂ‚ÍAã‹LŽå‘èŠÖŒW‚ÆŽå‘èŠK‘w‚ð
—p‚¢‚Ä‚Íà–¾‚Å‚«‚È‚¢BŽå‘èŠÖŒW‚ÍA1-a) ‚à 2-a) ‚à 3) ‚̂悤‚É“¯‚¶‚¾‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB
            1)a. Leslie has a house on Kausai.        (cf. Wasow,1980)
              b.*A house on Kausai is had (by Leslie).
            2)a. Leslie owns a house on kausai.
              b. A house on Kausai is owned (by Leslie).
            3) Leslie has(owns) a house on Kausai.
               <Location>       <Theme>
@@@@@(ii)ƒ‚Œ©‚Ì•ªÍ„
@@@@@‚Œ©ipp.50-55j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAˆÓ–¡Šiisemantic case)‚ÉŠî‚¢‚ÄŽóg•¶iŽå
‚É‹[Ž—Žóg•¶‚Å‚ ‚邪j‚Ì“KŠi«‚ð•ªÍ‚µ‚½‚à‚Ì‚Æ‚µ‚Ä‚ÍACouper-Kuhlen(1979) ‚ª‚ 
‚èA‚±‚ê‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄAu”\“®•¶‚ÌŽåŒê‚̈Ӗ¡Ši‚ª Agentive, Experience ‚ÌꇓKŠiA
Instrument, Location, Objective ‚Ìꇂ͕s“KŠi‚Æ‚È‚éB‚Ü‚½A–Ú“IŒê‚̈Ӗ¡Ši‚ª 
Benefactive, Goal, Instrument ‚È‚Ç‚Ìꇂ͓KŠiBAgentive, Direction, Reason ‚È
‚Ç‚Ìꇂ͕s“KŠi‚Æ‚È‚év‚Æ‚·‚éB
@@@@@(iii)ƒde Chene ‚Ì•ªÍ„
@@@@@de Chene(pp.50-51)‚àA”\“®•¶‚ÅŽåŒê‚ªŽå‘è‚Ìꇂ͎󓮉»‚ð‹–‚³‚È‚¢‚Æ‚µ
‚ÄAŽŸ‚̂悤‚ȉðà‚ðŽŽ‚Ý‚Ä‚¢‚éB”Þ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽå‘è‚ÌŽåŒê‚͎󓮉»‚ð‹–‚³‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤
‚±‚Æ‚Ìʼn‚ÌØ‹’‚Æ‚µ‚ÄA
              4) Sue is touching the bookcase.
                   a. ƒX|‚Í–{’I‚ð‚³‚í‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éiSue = “®ìŽå)
                   b. ƒX|‚Æ–{’I‚Æ‚ªÚG‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éiSue =  Žå‘è)
              5) The bookcase is being touched by Sue.
                    –{’I‚̓X|‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä‚³‚í‚ç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éiSue = “®ìŽåj
ã‚ÅASue ‚̈Ӗ¡–ðŠ„‚ÉŠÖ‚·‚é 4) ‚ÅŒ©‚ç‚ê‚éžB–†«‚ÍAŽó“®•¶‚Ì 5)‚Å‚Í‚È‚­‚È‚éB“Á
‚ÉASue ‚ðŽå‘è‚Æ‚·‚é 4-b)‚ɂ͑Ήž‚·‚éŽó“®•¶‚Í‘¶Ý‚µ‚È‚¢B
@@@@@‚±‚̂悤‚ȈӖ¡Ši‚É‚æ‚镪͂ÍAuƒCƒ“ƒ”ƒHƒ‹ƒuƒƒ“ƒgv‚âu‰e‹¿v‚Æ‚¢‚Á‚½
‚à‚Ì‚ð‚æ‚è‰ÈŠw“I‚ɸãk‚É•ªÍ‚Å‚«‚é‰Â”\«‚ð”é‚ß‚Ä‚¢‚邪Aˆê•û‚ÅAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚Æ‚µ‚Ä
‚ÍAׂ©‚·‚¬‚ÄŽÀ‘H“I‚Å‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤Œœ”O‚ª‚ ‚éB‚³‚ç‚ÉAŠwK‰p•¶–@‚ª‰z‚¦‚ç‚ê‚È‚¢‚Å‚ 
‚낤•”•ª‚ÍAˆÓ–¡Ši‚É‚æ‚镪͂ł͂¢‚í‚ä‚é‘O’uŽŒ‹å‚Æ–¼ŽŒ‹å‚Ì‹æ•Ê‚ð‚µ‚È‚¢A‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_
‚Å‚ ‚éBŽŸ‚Ìde Chene(pp.50-51) ‚̉ðà‚ðŒ©‚Ä‚Ý‚æ‚¤Bde Chene ‚ÍAŽåŒê‚à–Ú“IŒê‚à“®
ìŽå‚ƈႤꇂɂÍA•’ÊA•Ð•û‚ÍŽå‘è‚Å‚ ‚èA‚à‚¤•Ð•û‚Í’…“_‚Ü‚½‚Í‹N“_(source)‚Ü‚½
‚ÍêŠ(location)‚Ì‚¢‚¸‚ê‚©‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚µAŽåŒê‚ªŽå‘èi“®ìŽå‚Å‚È‚¢j‚ÌꇎógŒ`‚Í•s
‰Â‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
              6)a.  The book fell to the floor.  (the floor = ’…“_j
                b.  The book fell from the table.(the table = ‹N“_j
                c.  The book is on the table.    (the table = êŠj
                                      (the book = Žå‘è)

 ø¢15-6-NT-(A)@mŽógŒ`‚̃‚ƒ`ƒx|ƒVƒ‡ƒ“n 
@@@@@ŽógŒ`‚̃‚ƒ`ƒx[ƒVƒ‡ƒ“‚ɂ‚¢‚Ä‚ÍAˆÀˆäi1994, pp.286ff)‚âAHBEU(pp.
57ff)‚âCollins(pp.404-405)‚È‚Ç‚É‚­‚킵‚¢à–¾‚ª‚ ‚éB—v–ñ‚·‚é‚ÆA‚»‚ꂼ‚ꎟ‚Ì‚æ
‚¤‚É‚È‚éB
@@@@@(i)ƒˆÀˆäi1994, pp.286ffj/Declerck(1991, p.211)‚Ìà–¾„
         @@1. ŽåŒê‚ª •s–¾Šm(vague)‚É‚È‚Á‚Ä‚µ‚Ü‚¤ê‡Žó“®‘Ô‚ª D‚Ü‚ê‚éB
            @@@‚PjI've been insulted! (cf Someone has insulted me!) 
        @@ 2. ˜b‚µŽè‚ª“®ìŽå‚ÉŒ¾‹y‚µ‚½‚­‚È‚¢ê‡... 
         @@3. ‹t‚É“®ìŽå‚ð‹­’²‚·‚邽‚ß‚É...“®ìŽå‚ªÅd—v‚ÌVî•ñ‚ð’S‚¤ê‡...
                  2)A: Why are you so attached to that drawing?
                    B: It was made by my father. 
             4. NP1‚ª‰½‚ð‚µ‚½‚©‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚æ‚èANP2‚É‚Ç‚¤‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚ª ‹N‚«‚½‚© ... 
             5. •¶‚Í‚·‚Å‚É‚í‚©‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éî•ñ(old info)‚Å Žn‚ßA•¶––‚Ì‚Ù‚¤‚ÉV‚µ‚¢
                î•ñ(new info)‚ð‚·‚¦‚é‚Ì‚ª’Ê—áB ‚±‚ê‚Í‚Å‚«‚邱‚Æ‚È‚çŽå‘è(theme)
                ‚ð‹Œî•ñ‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚É‚µ‚Ä‚¨‚«‚½‚¢‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB‚±‚ÌŒ´‘¥‚ðî•ñ‚ÌŒ´‘¥
                (info principle)‚ƌĂԂ±‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚éB
         (ii)ƒAHBEU(pp.57ff)‚Ìà–¾„
         @@@The passive voice ... is useful,
             1. when the performer of the action is unknown or irrelevant
               to the matter at hand.
             2.to conceal the performer of an action or the identity of a
               person responsible for a mistake.
             3.surprisingly enough, ...to emphasize the performer of the
               action...using by at the end of the sentence. 
             4.to emphasize a modifying adverb.
             5.scientists...as a conventional means of impersonal reporting
                ...the air of objectivity...
             6.to preserve the coherence of your writing.
         (iii)ƒCollins (pp.404-405) ‚Ìà–¾„
                ƒagent‚ÉŒ¾‹y‚µ‚È‚¢‚Æ‚¢‚¤‘I‘ð„
               Using a passive form of a verb gives you the option of not
        mentioning the person or thing responsible for the action, often 
        called the agent of the action.
               ...because you don't know who or what the agent is...
               ...because it is not important...
               ƒ‰ÈŠw˜_•¶‚ÉŽóg‘½‚¢‚Ì‚Í„
               In accounts of processes and scientific experiments, the  
        passive is used ... because the focus is on what happens and not
        on who or what makes it happen.
               ƒ•¶––‚Éagent‚ª—ˆ‚éꇂɂÍA‚»‚Ìagent‚ª‹­’²‚³‚ê‚é„
               When you use the passive, you can of course mention the
        agent at the end of the clause by using 'by'.  But this puts 
        emphasis on the agent, because the end of the clause is an important
        position, and so you often do this when you want to refer back to
        the agent in the next clause.
                 3) His best friend was killed by a grenade, which exploded
                    under his car.
               (‚±‚Ì—á‚Íend-focus‚Æend-weight‚̃‹|ƒ‹‚ªd‚È‚Á‚½—á‚Å‚à‚ ‚é)
@@@@@‚±‚ê‚ç‚ð‚Ü‚Æ‚ß‚é‚ÆAŽógŒ`‚̃‚ƒ`ƒx[ƒVƒ‡ƒ“‚ÍA–{•¶‚Å‚àq‚ׂ½‚悤‚Ɉꌩ
–µ‚‚·‚é‚©‚ÉŒ©‚¦‚é‚Q‚‚̂à‚Ì‚©‚ç‚È‚éB‚‚܂èA
        (i) “®ìŽå‚ð–Ú—§‚½‚¹‚½‚­‚È‚¢@¨@by`‚È‚µ‚ÌŽógŒ`
@@@ (ii) “®ìŽå‚ð–Ú—§‚½‚¹‚½‚¢@¨@by`‚‚«‚ÌŽógŒ`
“Á‚ÉA(ii)‚Í•¶––‚ÉVî•ñ‚ð’u‚­‚Æ‚¢‚¤‰pŒê‚Ìî•ñ\‘¢ã‚Ì“ÁF‚Æ[‚­‚©‚©‚í‚Á‚Ä‚¢‚éB
@@@@@Young(1980,p160f)‚ÍAî•ñ\‘¢ã‚Ìvoice contrast‚ɂ‚¢‚ÄŽŸ‚̂悤‚Éà–¾
‚·‚éB 
              4)a.   @@ THEME  /  RHEME
                b.   the mistake  was explained   by Paul
                c.                      -----    / NEW
              5)a.        THEME  /  RHEME
                b.   the mistake  was explained
                c.       -----   / NEW
It is important not to underrate the effect of choice of theme as an explanation
for the occurence of passive voice. (p.164) 
@@@@@‚Ü‚½ADownig & Locke(p.252)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAspeech ‚Å‚Í 6-B ‚̂悤‚ÉVî•ñ‚ð
•\‚·tonicity(change of pitch and stress)‚ª•¶––‚©‚ç•Ê‚Ìꊂɓ®‚¢‚Ä‚à–â‘è‚È‚¢‚ªA
              6)A: Where did you get that silver bangle?
                B: My BOY-friend gave it to me.
                      New                Given
writing ‚Å‚Í‚±‚ꂪ‚ނ‚©‚µ‚¢‚Ì‚ÅA7-B ‚̂悤‚É•¶––‚Ì by` ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄVî•ñ‚ðŽ¦‚·
passive ‚Í useful ‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚·‚éB
              7)A: Where did you get that silver bangle?
                B: It was given to me by my BOY-friend.
                   Given                    New

 ø¢15-6-NT-(B)@magentless passivesn 
@@@@ Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman(1983, p.225) ‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎA
         The ESL/EFL teacher must also be very aware of the fact that the 
majority of passive sentences that occur in speech and writing(i.e.around 
85 percent) do not have an explicit agent.  For example:
         Grapes are grown in the valley.  ...
Such sentences occur when the agent is understood, ...
         ... Shintani(1979)(m:"The Frequency and Usage of the Enlgish Passive."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation in Applied Linguistics, UCLA) suggests that
we teach our ESL/EFL students when and why to retain the agent in those appro-
ximately 15 percent of passive sentences that have explicit agents ...
         ...and she concludes that almost all these agents could be explained 
by one of the following generalizations:
         1. The agent is a proper name ... who is too important to omit
            in the context,e.g.:
                   The Mona Lisa was painted by da Vinci.
         2. The agent is an indefinite noun phrase, i.e.,new information, ...
                   While Jill was walking down the street, her purse
                   was snatched by a young man.
         3. The agent is an inanimate noun phrase which is retained because
            it is unexpected;i.e., we expect agents to be animate, and almost 
            all omitted agents get reconstructed as animate nouns,e.g.:
                   All the lights and appliances in the Alberton household
                   are switched on and off daily by {an/this} elective device.
         One of Shintani's recommendations is that the agentless pasive, which 
is the norm, should be emphasized much more than it now is in EFL/ESL teaching
materials.

 ø¢15-7-NT@mbe ‚uen:ó‘Ô‚©“®ì‚©n 
       (i)•´‚ç‚킵‚¢—áiambiguous)
@@@@@ŽŸ‚Ì 1)‚Æ2)‚Å‚ÍAbe{Ven‚ª“®ì‚Æó‘Ô‚ð•\‚µ‚Ä‚¢‚éB
            1)a.  The store was closed sharp at 8 yesterday.  m“®ìn
                 i]ìAp.188j
              b.  The store was closed all day yesterday.     mó‘Ôn
            2)a.  The tree was uprooted by the storm.   m“®ìn
                 iˆÀˆäA1996, p.313j
              b.  The tree was uprooted when I saw it.  mó‘Ôn
ˆê”Ê“I‚ÉA1) ‚â 2) ‚̂悤‚É“®ŽŒ‚ªŠ®Œ‹“®ŽŒiconclusive verb, cf. Jespersen, O.
MEGIV,7.6)‚Å‚ ‚éꇂɂÍA“®ì‚Æ“®ì‚ÌŒ‹‰Ê‚Å‚ ‚éó‘Ô‚ÆA‚Q‚Æ‚¨‚è‚̈Ӗ¡‚ª‚ ‚éB
ˆê•ûAŽŸ‚Ì 3) ‚̂悤‚É”ñŠ®Œ‹“®ŽŒ‚ÌꇂɂÍí‚Éó‘Ô‚ðŽ¦‚·B
            3)  The mayor is admired by everybody.iˆÀˆäA1996, p.313)
           Quirk, et al.(1985, p.170)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 4-a) ‚Ístate‚©act‚©ambiguous
‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B‚½‚¾‚µA4-b), 4-c) ‚̂悤‚É by` ‚ð‰Á‚¦‚½‚èAbe-ing‚ð‰Á‚¦‚½‚è‚·‚é
‚Æstate‚̈Ӗ¡Á‚¦Aact‚̈Ӗ¡‚¾‚¯‚Æ‚È‚éBŒ¾‚¢Š·‚¦‚ê‚ÎA4-b), 4-c)‚É‚æ‚èstate‚©act
‚©test‚Å‚«‚邱‚Æ‚É‚È‚éB
            4)a.    [ambiguous]In 1972, the Democrats were defeated.
              b.    [act only] In 1972, the Democrats were defeated by the 
                    Republicans.
              c.    [act only] In 1972, the Democrats were being defeated.
Šm‚©‚Éby`‚ª‚‚­‚Æ‚«‚Í“®ì‚Å‚ ‚邱‚Æ‚ª‘½‚¢‚ªA”ñŠ®Œ‹“®ŽŒ‚ÌꇂɂÍã‹L 3) ‚̂悤
‚Éí‚Éó‘Ô‚Åby`‚ª‚‚­‚±‚Æ‚à‚ ‚é‚Ì‚ÅAby`‚ª‚‚­‚©‚‚©‚È‚¢‚©‚ð“®ì‚©ó‘Ô‚©‚̃eƒX
ƒ^[‚Æ‚µ‚ÄŽg‚¤‚±‚Æ‚Í‚Å‚«‚È‚¢‚ÆŽv‚¤B
@@@@@‚ЂƂ‚Ìl‚¦•û‚Æ‚µ‚ÄA(i)–{—ˆ‚ÌŽógŒ`‚Íí‚É“®ìA(ii)ó‘Ô‚ÌŽóg‚Íí‚É
be + (being) Ven ‚Ì\‘¢‚ðŽ‚‚Ƃàl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éB‚±‚Ìê‡A(ii)‚Ìbe (being) Ven ’†‚Ì
be ‚Í copula ‚Å‚ ‚Á‚Äaux ‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢iQuirk et al. 1985, p.170)‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚É‚È‚èA
(being) Ven ‚Í -ing ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŒ`—eŽŒ‰»‚³‚ꂽ“®ŽŒ‚ÌŽógŒ`(be Ven)‚Æ‚¢‚¤‚±‚Æ‚É‚È‚éB
‚±‚Ìl‚¦•û‚ð‚Æ‚ê‚ÎA1-b), 2-b), 3) ‚Í‚»‚ꂼ‚êA
            5)a.  The store was (being) closed all day yesterday.
              b.  The tree was (being) uprooted when I saw it.
              c.  The mayor is (being) admired by everybody.
‚Æ‚È‚éB
@@@@@(ii) get Ven
@@@@@get ‚uen‚͂‚˂ɓ®ì‚ð•\‚·Bget ‚Í dynamic conclusive verb(Quirk et 
al. p.161)‚¾‚©‚ç‚Å‚ ‚éB‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄAŽŸ‚Ì 6-a) ‚Ì ambiguity ‚Í 6-b) ‚Æ‚·‚ê‚ÎÁ‚¦
‚éB(ibid. p.162) 
            6)a. The chair was broken.  i“®ìEó‘Ôj
	      b. The chair got broken.@i“®ìj
‚½‚¾‚µASwan, M.(1980, $267-3)‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAuget + ‰ß‹Ž•ªŽŒv‚ÍA–³§ŒÀ‚ÉŽg‚¦‚é‚í
‚¯‚Å‚Í‚È‚­A“Ë‘RE•sˆÓE‹ô‘R‚É‚È‚³‚ê‚邱‚Æ(things that are done suddenly, 
unexpectedly or by accident)‚⎩•ªŽ©g‚ɉ½‚©‚ð‚·‚é(things which we 'do to 
ourselves like getting dressed)ꇂɎg‚í‚ê‚éB‚µ‚½‚ª‚Á‚ÄA
            7)  *Our house got built in 1940.
            8)  *Parliament got opened by the Queen last week.
‚Ü‚½Aget-passive ‚ɂ͂ӂ‚¤ by`‚ª‚È‚¢B(Quirk et al. 1985, p.161)
            9) James got beaten last night.

 ø¢15-8-NT@mby@vs@in/at/to/etc.n 
@@@@@¬“ciãAp.183j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAó‘Ô‚ð•\‚·Žó“®‘Ô‚ÌŒã‚É‚Í by ˆÈŠO‚Ì‘O’uŽŒ‚ª
‘±‚­B
            1) I am interested in Chinese art.
            2) He is satisfied with his job.
            3) Ann is married to Alex.
“®ì|”í“®ì‚ÌŠÖŒWi‘¼“®«j‚ªŽã‚­‚È‚é‚Æó‘Ô‚ð•\‚µA by ˆÈŠO‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚ªŽg‚í‚ê‚é‚Æ
‚¢‚Á‚Ä‚æ‚¢‚©‚à‚µ‚ê‚È‚¢B
          ]ìip.281j‚É‚æ‚ê‚ÎAŽŸ‚Ì 4-b) ‚Íó‘Ô‚ð•\‚µAin whisky ‚Í“®ìŽå‚ðŽ¦
‚·‹å‚Å‚Í‚È‚­êŠ‚ðŽ¦‚·•›ŽŒ‹å‚Æ‚Ý‚é‚ׂ«‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
            4)a.  Whisky contains a high percentage of alcohol.
              b.  A high percentage of alcohol is contained in whisky.
              c. *A high percentage of alcohol is contained by whisky.
@@@@@ˆÀˆäi1982, p.97)‚É‚àAŽŸ‚Ì 5), 6) ‚Ì—á‚ɂ‚¢‚Ä“¯—l‚̃Rƒƒ“ƒg‚ª‚ ‚éB
            5) The mountain was covered with snow.
            6) His name is known to everyone in the country.
‚³‚ç‚ÉAˆÀˆä‚Íã‚Ì covered ‚â known ‚͈êŽí‚ÌŒ`—eŽŒ‚Å‚ ‚èAu‚»‚ÌŒ`—eŽŒ“I‚Å‚ ‚é
“x‡‚¢‚͈ê—l‚Å‚Í‚È‚¢v‚Æ‚·‚éB

 ø¢15-9-NT@m“®ŽŒ‹å‚ÌŽógŒ`n 
@@@@@“®ŽŒ‹å‚É‚ÍŽóg‰Â‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚Æ•s‰Â‚Ì‚à‚Ì‚ª‚ ‚éB(cf.¬¼A1980, pp.26-27)
            1)a.  After much argument, we finally agreed to his proposal.
              b.  After much argument, his proposal was finally agreed to.
            2)a.  We agreed with Mary.
              b. *Mary was agreed with.
‚Ü‚½A“¯‚¶“®ŽŒ‹å‚ªA‚»‚Ì’†‚ÉŠÜ‚Ü‚ê‚é–¼ŽŒ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŽóg‰Â‚Æ‚È‚Á‚½‚è•s‰Â‚ð‚È‚Á‚½‚è‚·
‚éê‡‚à‚ ‚éB(Quirk et al. 1985, p.163)
            3)a.  They eventually arrived at the expected result.
              b.  The expected result was eventually arrived at.
            4)a.  They eventually arrived at the splendid stadium.
              b. *The splendid stadium was eventually arrived at.
Quirk et al. ‚ÍA3-b) ‚̂悤‚ÉŽåŒê‚ª abstract/figurative ‚Ìꇂ̂ݎógŒ`‚ª‰Â”\
‚Æ‚¢‚¤B
@@@@@“®ŽŒ‹å‚ª‚ǂ̂悤‚ÈꇂɎóg‰Â‚Æ‚È‚èA‚ǂ̂悤‚Èꇂɕs‰Â‚Æ‚È‚é‚©‚ðà
–¾‚µ‚悤‚Æ‚µ‚½ŽŽ‚Ý‚É‚Œ©ip.59)‚Ìu“Á’¥‚¯‰¼àvicf.15-5-NT-(B)j‚ª‚ ‚éBŽŸ‚Ì
‚悤‚È‚à‚Ì‚Å‚ ‚éB
@@@@@ƒ‚Œ©‚Ìu“Á’¥‚¯‰¼àv„
        @@@@‰pŒê‚Ì‹[Ž—Žóg•¶‚ÍAŽåŒê‚ª‚»‚ÌŽóg•¶‚É‚æ‚Á‚Ä“Á’¥‚¯‚ç‚ê‚Ä‚¢‚éê
‡‚É“KŠi‚Æ‚È‚éB
            5)a. *This building was walked in front of by John last month.
              b.  This building was walded in front of by the Japanese Emperor 
                  last month.
@@@@@ˆÀˆäi1982, p.236/1996, p.307)‚ÍAuŽó“®‘Ô‚ÌŽåŒê‚ª “®ŽŒ‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄŽ¦‚³‚ê
‚ésˆ×‚É‚æ‚Á‚ÄlX‚ÌŠÖS‚ðˆø‚­‚悤‚ȉe‹¿‚ðŽó‚¯‚é‚Æl‚¦‚ç‚ê‚éꇂɂÍAŽó“®‘Ô‚ª‰Â
”\‚Å‚ ‚év‚Æ‚µ‚ÄŽŸ‚Ì—á‚ð‚ ‚°‚éB
            6)  The bed was not slept in.
            7)  The house was not lived in.
            8)  The chair was not sat on.
            9) *The room was run in by the children. 
           10) *The room was waited in by them. 
‚¢‚¸‚ê‚É‚¹‚æAŽóg‰Â‚Ì“®ŽŒ‹å‚ÍAiŒêƒŒƒxƒ‹‚Å‚Í‚È‚­‹åƒŒƒxƒ‹‚Å‚ ‚é‚Æ‚¢‚¤“_‚ÅjL‹`
‚ٕ̈ªÍimetanalysis, cf.Jespersen, O. 1914, II Syntax Vol.1., pp.141-142)‚É‚æ
‚è‚ЂƂ‚̂©‚½‚Ü‚è‚ÆŒ©‚È‚³‚ꂽ‚à‚Ì‚ÆŒ¾‚¦‚éB

 ø¢15-10-NT-(A)@mthere\•¶‚ÌŽógŒ`n 
@@@@@there ‚ªˆêŽí‚Ì–¼ŽŒ‚ƂƂ炦‚ç‚ê‚邱‚Æ‚ª‚ ‚éB
            1) There is a banana in the fridge, isn't there?
            2)a. There is believed by many experts to be an error in the 
                 argument.
              b. Many experts believe there to be an error in the argument.
                                                 (McCawley, J.D. 1988, p.170)

 ø¢15-10-NT-(B)@mbe said to Vn 
          ŽŸ‚Ì 1-a) ‚ÍA1-b) ‚©‚çshe ‚ð it ‚Ì‚Æ‚±‚ë‚Ö‘ã“ü‚µAthatß‚ðto•s’莌‚É
‚©‚¦‚Ä“¾‚ç‚ê‚é‚Æ‚·‚éà‚ª‚ ‚éBiˆÀˆäA1982, p.237)
            1)a. She is said to be rich.
              b. It is said that she is rich.
‚µ‚©‚µA‚±‚Ì–{‚Å‚ÍA1-a) ‚Ì is said to ‚ÍAis about to, have to ‚È‚Ç‚Æ“¯—lo–@
«p‚Ì€VŠg[Žq(SEMI-MOD)‚Æ‚µ‚Ĉµ‚í‚ê‚éBicf.12-11-NT-(A))

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